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tamerhanyçš„ä¸»é¡µ http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany Sun, 21 Mar 2010 14:38 EDT Sun, 21 Mar 2010 14:38 EDT Zorpia.com King Seti II http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1940077 Seti II and his Tomb (KV15) in the Valley of the Kings King Seti II <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti222.jpg" /> Seti II was probably the fifth or sixth king of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, depending on the treatment we give Amenmessses who may have ruled before, concurrently or even after him (though that is less likely). Seti (mer-en-ptah) was this king's birth name, meaning "He of the god Seti, Beloved of Ptah". He is also sometimes referred to by his Greek name, Sethos II. His throne name was User-kheperu-re Setep-en-re, meaning "Powerful are the Manifestations of Re, Chosen of Re". <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti223.jpg" /> It was not unusual in ancient Egypt for the successful, long reign of a king to be followed by succession problems. Of course, few kings had a longer, more successful reign than Ramesses II, and when he died, he left a son who was now old himself as the new King. This was Merneptah, who was almost certainly the father of Seti II. We believe that an usurper named Amenemesses probably ruled either before him, or concurrently with Seti II during the early part of his rule. It may have been Amenemesses who erased the name of Seti II in his tomb and elsewhere, but it was likewise Seti II who probably did likewise to the names and images of Amenemesses after taking complete control of Egypt. We believe that Seti may have only reigned for about six years, from about 1199 until 1193 BC. We do know that Seti II took at least three wives, consisting of Takhat II, Tausret and Tiaa (Sutailja??). Tausret apparently was the mother of his oldest son and heir named Seti-Merenptah, but that child did not live to inherit the throne. Instead, it was Siptah, a younger son who replaced the king, though probably only as a child under Tausret's regency even though his mother is considered to have been Queen Tiaa. In fact, Tausret appears to have outlived this young king, taking full possession of the throne herself with full royal titles much as Hatshepsut had done some 300 years earlier. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti218.jpg" /> Seti II's reign was apparently relatively peaceful. We have no evidence of foreign policy during his reign, though there was probably activity at the mines around Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai. He made a number of claims regarding building projects, though there is little indication that his words translate into physical accomplishments. We find surviving trances of his work at Hermopolis, where he apparently finished some decorations in his grandfather's, Ramesses II, temple. He also did some work in Karnak, where he was probably responsible for a new way station of the sacred barks in the First Court of the temple of Amun-Re, and he probably also completed some work in the temple of Mut. KV15, the Tomb of Seti II KV15, the tomb of Seti II, has been known since antiquity and must have lied open during most of the classical period, judging from the 59 Greek and Latin graffiti found on its walls. The tomb was investigated superficially by Pococke, along with others who followed after him. However, it was Howard Carter who cleared most of the tomb between 1903 and 1904, though apparently the ritual well was never excavated. One may find the entrance to KV15, rather than having steps cut below a retaining wall, directly quarried into the base of an almost vertical cliff face at the head of the wadi running south west from the main Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes). However, at present the tomb has been temporarily closed to allow the installation of new flooring, hand rails and lighting. It is expected to soon. <img height="268" alt="225Ã—268" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti21.jpg" width="225" /> The history of the tomb is really unknown at this time. It is very likely that Seti II may have originally been buried with his wife, Tausret, in her tomb and later moved to this tomb which appears to have been hastily and incompletely finished, by Sethnakht (Setakht). In fact, the tomb may have originally been started for Seti II but the work interrupted at some point. This may have had to do with the reign of Amenmeses, if that king ruled concurrently with Seti II rather than before him. It appears that within the tomb, Seti's name was carved, erased, and then carved out once again. The erasure may be attributable to Amenmeses, or possibly to Saptah. It has been suggested that his wife Tausert then had her husband's name restored. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti217.jpg" /> The tomb, which takes a Northwest to Southeast axis, consists of a short entryway corridor followed by three long corridors in turn followed by a well room. The well room then communicates with a four pillared hall and then a makeshift burial chamber, formed from what would have been another corridor, where the king's sarcophagus was located. This tomb is literally a straight shot leading 75.38 meters into the cliff face with only a mild descent for the most part leading about 6.53 meters deep, and with no lateral rooms. However, a rectangular niche on the right side of the pillared hall may mark the location where the usual annex would have been cut. Missing also is the high trapezoidal niches often found at the beginning of the third corridor. Much of the painted decoration is intact and the plaster appears to be relatively stable. None of the well-preserved relief was ever painted. Breaks in the surface of the walls have recently been filled in by Antiquities Inspectorate restorers. Due to the hurried completion of the tomb, decorations in clearly take two forms. While those in the initial part of the tomb are well formed using both sunk and raised reliefs, they give way to less accomplished work executed in paint only deeper within the tomb, with the four pillared hall being the only exception. There, the decorations again revert to sunk reliefs, though paint was not always applied. In some of the deepest corridors, only preliminary sketches were made on the plaster surface. Throughout the tomb, even including the first corridor where we find the raised and sunk reliefs, there are stylistic differences within the craftsmanship of the work that might suggest the use of different artisans. While the tomb may have been unfinished, unusually, the walls of the entrance were carefully smoothed and covered with a layer of white plaster, as elsewhere within the tomb. However, no decorative theme was applied to the entrance and entrance corridor walls. <img height="201" alt="263Ã—201" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti26.jpg" width="263" /> However, in the next, longer corridor (Corridor One) on the doorway lintel is depicted the kneeling goddesses Isis and Nephthys, and between them a sun disk with a scarab and a ram headed god. Inscribed on the jambs of the doorway are the names of Seti II with an image of Ma'at, also shown kneeling. Within this corridor, are depictions of Seti II making offerings to Re-Horakhty and offering vases to Nefertem followed by the initial passages of the Litany of Re on the east wall. The scene of Seti II and Nefertem were cut over the original opening vignette of the Litany of Ray which was then reinscribed further down the corridor. On the west wall are scenes of Sokar and Seti II making offerings of incense and libations to Re-Horakhty. The remainder of the corridor continues with the tests of the Litany of Re. On the ceiling of this corridor we find painted flying vultures, some with the head of a cobra and not completely painted. Between the vultures the king's name is inscribed, and along the edges of the ceiling are texts relating to Osiris and Re-Horakhty. The scenes on the next two corridors are oriented towards the rear of the tomb on the eastern walls, while on the west they run towards the tomb's entrance. <img height="201" alt="305Ã—201" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti27.jpg" width="305" /> Over the outer lintel of the second corridor is found a winged disk, while on the doorjambs the Litany of Re is continued. On the walls within this corridor, the decorative theme is executed in red, preliminary sketches only. On the east wall we find Seti II making offerings to Re-Horakhty, while on the west wall he makes an offering to Sokar. The remainder of this corridor continues with sections of the Litany of Re, including the 75 forms of the sun god. Further on, we also find the second and third hours of the Amduat on both the east and west walls. In this corridor, the ceiling once again portrays Isis and Nephthys, this time as kites, on either side of a sun disk containing the ram headed bird representing the ba (soul) of Re. This scene is followed by more text from the Litany of Re. Stars were to have filled the remainder of the ceiling, but were never completely rendered. The outer lintel of the third corridor is decorated with a winged disk, while on the door jams we find the names and a depiction of Seti II. Within this corridor, the east wall is inscribed with representations from the fourth hour of the Amduat, while the west wall depicts the fifth hour. Within the well room (ritual shaft) the niches at the entrance are, for the first time, fully cut. Here, an innovation is the depiction of various divine statues, many imitations of actual wooden figures similar to those found in the tomb of Tutankhamun. Normally we would find the depiction of protective deities such as the Four Sons of Horus and the related goddesses, but for unexplained reasons these figures have been omitted. <img height="214" alt="305Ã—214" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti29.jpg" width="305" /> Double scene of Seti II making offerings walls within the four pillared chamber are rendered with the fourth and fifth divisions of the Book of Gates. On the rear wall is a double scene of Seti II offering an image of Ma'at and two vases to Osiris. Here, the pillars depict Seti II, Horus-Iwn-mutef, Ptah, who is in a shrine, along with other deities. The innovative decorations on the pillars, which have only one figure on each side and two adjacent sides forming a "scene, was a development used consistently from this time forward. <img height="300" alt="224Ã—300" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti220.jpg" width="224" /> <img height="300" alt="228Ã—300" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti221.jpg" width="228" /> Scenes from within the Well Room Finally, in the makeshift burial chamber are several registers. The upper of these contain images of Anubis the jackal on a shrine and two rows of deities representing the followers of Re and Osiris. On the lower registers are scenes of mummified figures on snake style beds representing the fifth division of the Book of Gates. Along the length of the ceiling is Nut, with down swept wings, and above her head perhaps the remains of depictions of ba of Re. James Burton tells us that: "It seems they bought in the body before the tomb was finished and then went on working - a large figure of a Deity with outspread wings painted on the ceiling of above the sarcophagus - very rough. Some beautifully drawn figures of the king in red lines." <img height="285" alt="205Ã—285" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti211.jpg" width="205" /> Not much in the way of funerary equipment was discovered within this tomb, and the body of Seti II had been removed during antiquity to the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35), along with the mummies of other royalty, for safe keeping. Fragments of his red granite sarcophagus lid were present within this tomb, but no trance of the actual box was ever discovered. These fragments remain in the tomb, and have been restored and placed on supports so as to suggest the original appearance of the sarcophagus. On the top of this sarcophagus is an Osirian depiction of Seti II, while the goddess Nut stretches across the reverse side. Unfortunately, the top of the lid is missing, along with the face of the king. However, the head of the goddess Nut is now in the Egyptian collection at the Louvre in Paris. <img height="292" alt="225Ã—292" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti25.jpg" width="225" /> Because this is the smallest of any New Kingdom sarcophagus ever discovered, it has been suggested by Aidan Dodson that it might in fact have been meant to nest within a larger sarcophagus, similar to that of Ramesses III. Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1940077 Tue, 03 Nov 2009 12:16 EDT The Magic of Egypt " The Journey of The Life Tim.. http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939484 The Magic of Egypt " The Journey of The Life Time " No country on earth boasts a longer recorded history than does Egypt, the Eternal 'Gift of the Nile' as described by the Historian Herodotus . A statement as true as today as it has been through seventy centuries of Egypt's Extraordinary history. Most people who think of Egypt think of antiquities, but Egypt offers much more. Certainly it is a prime location to see our great heritage from the ancient world, including Pyramids and wonderful temples, but it is also part of the Holy Land, and tours to Christian and other religious monuments are popular. Yet Egypt also offers nature and desert treks, great scuba diving and even golf, fishing and birding expeditions. One may choose to relax on the wondrous Egypt Red Sea or Sinai coasts, take in the high culture of Cairo, or even leisurely float down the Egyptian Nile on a luxurious river boat. <img height="302" alt="400Ã—302" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup14.jpg" width="400" /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup12.jpg" /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup11.jpg" /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup10.jpg" /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup24.jpg" /> </embed /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup1.jpg" /> <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/TJ/ForeignersLoveEgyptGroup2.jpg" /> <img 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Guide To Egypt on Zorpia " TJ " Personal http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939484 Sun, 01 Nov 2009 03:08 EDT The Battle of Kadesh, Part II http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939337 The Traditional Account Traditionally, the story of the Battle of Kadesh begins with the army of Ramesses II advancing upon the city of Kadesh in four corps. Ramesses II himself was with the lead element of the corps, known as Amun. While crossing the River Orontes (Arnath) to begin the approach to the city from the south, two Bedouin tribesmen, secretly in the employ of the Hittite king, led what appears to have been a gullible Ramesses the Great into believing that the Hittite army was many miles away to the north. Ramesses II, believing he had stolen a strategic advantage, having arrived on the battle grounds early, ordered the army of Amun onward without delay. <img height="281" alt="375Ã—281" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/chariot18.jpg" width="375" /> However, after making camp to the northwest of Kadesh, Ramesses II was rather unnerved to discover from captured enemy scouts that the Hittite army had already arrived. Located behind the Kadesh tell, they were even now ready for battle. Hearing this news, Ramesses II sent his vizier to the army (really, more of a division) of Re some miles back to hurry them forward. However, they were ambushed by 2,500 Hittite chariots as they crossed the plain of Kadesh and so were overcome. This force then wheeled north and attacked Ramesses II's encampment, overrunning them as well. Though many of Amun's troops panicked and abandoned Ramesses to his fate, the Pharaoh donned his armor and from his chariot, almost single handedly held off the Hittite chariotry inflicting heavy losses on them. However, Ramesses II may really have been saved by the vision of booty within his camp, which seems to have occupied the enemy troops. Overseeing the battle and observing the fate of his original chariot attack, the Hittite king ordered a further 1,000 chariots into the battle arena. However, just as these additional warriors reached the battle front, Ramesses II was saved by the arrival of the Ne'arin. This was a second body of troops that Ramesses II had detached from the main campaign and ordered to approach Kadesh from the north. With the aid of these troops, Ramesses II was able to fend off the Hittite attack and win the battle, leaving many of the enemy dead on the battle field and the survivors faced with the humiliation of having to swim back across the Orontes River to escape the wrath of the Pharaoh. <img height="193" alt="400Ã—193" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh11.jpg" width="400" /> Some accounts of the battle have the two warring parties facing off once again the next day, but the ultimate results of the contest was a truce, after which the Egyptians and Hittites withdrew to their respective homelands (Ramesses II, having crushed his enemies). The above is basically the Egyptian account of the Battle of Kadesh, and it probably does provide a framework for the overall action, though over the years, hardly any detail has escaped the attention of analysts. Though the battle may indeed be the earliest military action recorded in detail, there are many specifics that are either missing or are subject to considerable debate. In fact, Ramesses II certainly presented the battle with an obvious prejudice, particularly towards his own actions and deeds, but indeed, even the main three sources that we have of the battle, consisting of a poem, bulletin and reliefs, even disagree on some of the facts, and the scattered information derived from Hittite sources only confuse the matter additionally. Prelude to the Battle of Kadesh The Battle of Kadesh fought by Ramesses II was a long time in the making, and not the first to be fought between the Hattities and Egyptians over this small, but strategically located vassal state. Ramesses II had probably accompanied his father, Seti I on one similar campaign prior to his ascending the throne of Egypt. However, though Seti I may have taken Kadesh, by the time of Ramesses II's reign, it was back in the hands of the Hattities. From the onset of Ramesses II's reign, it is apparent that he intended to renew the struggle for domination in southern Syria, and so almost immediately he began preparing for the coming hostilities. He added a fourth field army to his military establishment, and expanded the eastern Delta city of Pi-Ramasses, his new capital, to act as a staging point for operations in the Levant. In his fourth year, during the spring of 1301 BC, Ramesses led his army into southern Syria for the first time as king, reaching as far as Simyra and succeeding in returning the Amurru kingdom to the Egyptian fold. <img height="479" alt="519Ã—479" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/hittite3-1.jpg" width="519" /> Map of the General Region It soon became evident to the Hittite king, Muwatallish, that in order to protect his holdings in Syria, he would have to confront the Egyptians in a major military campaign. The venue of this coming battle was never in doubt by either party. They would meet beneath the walls of Kadesh in order to settle once and for all the future of their respective empires in Syria. In fact, it is likely that the Hittites and the Egyptians agreed on the site, as well as the time of battle in advance. Certainly, there is an inference of this considering that the two sides arrived on the scene of Kadesh at about the same time during the month of May, 1300 BC. It should be noted however that this was not an ideal battleground for the Egyptians. The Hittites were operating in a region that was under their control where their supply lines were short. They probably staged their campaign out of Carchemish, not far from Kadesh at all. Furthermore, the city of Kadesh, currently under their command, was large enough to accommodate the Hittite army should matters go awry. It provided a good defensive position, surrounded by both a mote and the Orontes River itself. Ramesses II would also have to contend with one of the largest armies ever assembled by the kingdom of Hatti. Though no substantiating sources have ever been unearthed, Ramesses speaks of the Hittites having eighteen allied and vassal states providing some 3,700 chariots and 37,000 infantry. We know that these included Aleppo, Khatti, Naharin, Arzawa, Dardany, Keshkesh, Masa, Pidassa, Arwen (?), Karkisha, Luke, Carchemish, Ugarit, Dedy, Nuhashshe, Mushanet, Kadesh as well as the country of Kizwadna (Kizzuwadna), whom he commissioned to: "...send one hundred horses equipped (with chariots) and a thousand foot soldiers to the army of the Sun, who will provide for them." Throughout the months of March and April, Pi-Ramasses must have been a beehive of activity, as individual units were mustered into the four field armies (also sometimes referred to as divisions in some texts). One sign of times to come was the notable increase in the number of foreign troops in the regular Egyptian army. These included Nubians, Sherden, Libyans and Canaanites. The four armies were each made up of about 5,000 troops, for a total of 20,000 combatants. While no mention is actually made of the army's chariot strength, by this date the Egyptians should have been able to muster a significant force. Ramesses left Egypt in April, probably taking the coast road to Gaza. It was there that Ramesses sent the Ne'arin, probably an elite unit, northward from Gaza along the coast road to Canaan, probably to secure the loyalty of the Canaanite coastal cities. On a specific day, they were probably ordered to arrive at Kadesh by way of the Eleutheros Valley in Amurru. The main body of his forces followed the route inland through Canaan, traversing the eastern side of Lake Galilee afterwards entering the Bekaa Valley in order to reach Kumidi. <img height="259" alt="350Ã—259" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh9.jpg" width="350" /> Ramesses II had arrived near Kadesh and was encamped with the army of Amun about one day's march south from Kadesh. The location of their camp has been identified as a high, conspicuous mound known as Kamuat el-Harmel. We are actually not certain about the day that Ramesses II arrived at this location, but rather that he was at the camp on the ninth day of the month of Shemu (late May). The other three armies, named P'Re (Re), Ptah and Sutekh (Set), lay to the rear of the army of Amun, each separated by a distance of about 10.5 kilometers (one iter). While Ramesses II has been criticized for this division of his forces, it was standard operating procedure to distance the armies in this manner. Unfortunately, we have no further specific references to time within the accounts of the battle, and many military analysts believe that the following events may have occurred over a broader length of time than what the fluid accounts of the battle might lead us to believe. First Encounters with the Enemy Ramesses II and the Army of Amun began to strike camp on the ninth day in order to cross the Orontes probably by the ford at Shabtuna (or nearby). It must have taken some considerable period of time for this to have been effected. Five thousand men, perhaps along with additional (and probably, considering the retinue that followed the King, substantial) support personnel, their equipment, including chariots, had to move down the ridge through the Labwi (Robawi) forest and ponderously cross the Orontes. This all probably took a great deal of time and even if the Army of Amun broke camp (a major undertaking in itself) early on the ninth day, they probably did not complete the crossing until at least mid-afternoon. <img height="400" alt="295Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh1.jpg" width="295" /> Shortly after the crossing, two Shasu Bedouin were encountered and brought before the pharaoh. It has been generally assumed that they were a deliberate plant by the Hittite king to misinform Ramesses II, and indeed, they informed him that the Hittite army was some distance to the north in the land of Aleppo. In bronze age encounters, this would have given Ramesses II considerable advantage. One of the most important aspects of such a battle, after a long march by opposing armies, was a period of rest and reorganization for battle readiness. Ramesses obviously took considerable assurance that he was in a superior position to the Hittite forces, and even the Egyptian accounts of the campaign do not attempt to hide his gullibility on this matter. However, historians may be too quick to lay blame on Ramesses II. The king clearly followed normal army operating procedures, and it was common for a screening force of chariots or horsemen to move ahead of the marching army. This advanced element was either absent, or may have shared the overconfidence of the pharaoh, but in any event, it would not have been the task of the king to oversee every operation of his army, for he had senior officers for that purpose. At any rate, the Army of Amun arrived in a somewhat casual manner at their campsite on the plains of Kadesh, northwest of the city, perhaps late on the ninth day, not realizing that the entire Hittite army was camped on the opposite side of the Kadesh mound. While we do not know the precise location of his camp, it is likely that he used the same site as that of Seti I some years before. The Egyptian's no doubt set up camp with the expectations of an extended stay, for at the center of the camp they erected a shrine to the god Amun, together with the great tent of the pharaoh where Ramesses II "took his seat on a throne of gold". Certainly it seems that if reconnaissance of any manner was ordered previously it was ineffectual, but now the Egyptian scouts made good by returning with two prisoners found lurking near the Egyptian camp. Refusing at first to talk, they were beaten before being dragged before Rameses II. The historical documents record that: "Then said His Majesty, 'What are you'? They replied, 'We belong to the ruler of Hatti! He sent us out to see where Your Majesty was.' Said His Majesty to them, 'Where is he, the Ruler of Hatti? See, I heard it said that he was in the land of Aleppo, north of Tunip.' They replied, 'Behold, the Ruler of Hatti has already come, together with many foreign lands that he brought as allies...See, they are poised armed and ready to fight behind Old Kadesh?'" <img height="210" alt="400Ã—210" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh6.jpg" width="400" /> It must have been a great shock to Ramesses II, who, only moments before, had figured he held an advantage to his adversary, having arrived on the plain of Kadesh first. As the full implications of this new information sank in, Ramesses must have understood that he and his army stared absolute disaster in the face. Not only was the Hittite army rested and ready for battle, but he had arrived at Kadesh with only a small part of his overall forces. A conference was quickly called with his senior staff, where the king revealed to them their dire predicament. This resulted in the realization that all would be lost unless their forces could be quickly consolidated, and therefore, the king's vizier was quickly sent south in order to implement a rapid advance by Egypt's other forces. However, at this point the events that follow become somewhat difficult to recount. <img height="181" alt="400Ã—181" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh7.jpg" width="400" /> if indeed the Egyptian Army left their camp and crossed the Orontes River on the ninth day, then it must have been somewhat late that day that the Hittite scouts were discovered, and even later by the time they were handed over to Ramesses after being tortured. Some authorities believe therefore that the vizier would not have reached the closest forces to Ramesses, the Army of Re, until the morning of the tenth day. However, that army had probably advanced northward just as the Army of Amun had, camping perhaps in the same location that the Ramesses II had occupied previous to his crossing of the Orontes. Hence, it is very possible that the vizier did in fact reach the southern forces late on the day of the ninth. The Forces Engage We know that the Army of Re mustered their forces and, as soon as they could break camp, attempted to close ranks with the Army of Amun as the vizier continued south in order to warn Egypt's other forces. Soon the Army of Re was crossing the River Orontes but Ramesses II would be disappointed if he expected their timely arrival. However, whether this division of the Egyptian army crossed the River late on the nine day of the month of Shemu or early on the tenth day is open to speculation. regardless, what transpired next could not have been as much of a surprise as the ancient text makes of it. <img height="400" alt="301Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh2.jpg" width="301" /> As the Army of Re crossed the Orontes River, they were set upon by Hittite chariotry, who emerged from the tree line to the right of the column about three quarters of a mile distant. However, it should be noted that some time must have elapsed between the dispatch of the vizier and the Army of Re's crossing of the Orontes. They, along with the Army of Amun under the direct command of Ramesses, had some period of time to prepare themselves for the ensuing hostilities, for it must have taken time for the vizier to both have reached and warned the army of Re, as well for that division to have struck camp and crossed the Orontes. Yet, this apparently did not prevent the destruction that followed. Having emerged from their cover the Hittite chariots crashed into the Army of Re, as they had been trained, causing widespread havoc. Many, if not most Egyptologists disagree with Ramesses stated figure of 2,500 chariots, for this would have been an overwhelming force that, first of all, would have required a significant time to cross over the Orontes but having succeeded, could have very likely decimated all of the Egyptian forces. For this reason, many analysts believe that the Hittite chariot forces that attacked the Army of Re were much smaller, perhaps only one fifth of the size documented by the Egyptians. This could explain much of what happened next. However, it must also be remembered that by this point, half of the Egyptian forces, consisting of some ten thousand men, along with half of the Egyptian chariotry were now on the plains of Kadesh, so the force of Hittite chariots may have been substantial given the initial destruction that was caused. Furthermore, the Hittite forces may not have had to cross over the Orontes proper, but rather a fairly small tributary. Certainly the Hittite chariots scattered the Army of Re, but probably did not actually decimate it. After crashing through the ranks of the Egyptian column, they wheeled to the north following the vanguard of this division as they rushed to the perceived safety of the Amun lines. The army of Amun had little time to secure a combat stance, but given the alarming information provided by the Hittite scouts, they must have been in a state of readiness to some extent. It is doubtful that the column of Re, which probably stretched on for some two and one half miles, was completely overcome by the Hittite attack. As the remnants of the Army of Re approached the camp of Amun, followed in hot pursuit by the Hittite chariotry, lookouts should have seen the advancing storm, signaled by the dust plume created by such a disturbance, and alerted at least some of the camp to the impending battle. <img height="400" alt="296Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh3.jpg" width="296" /> Nevertheless, the Hittite chariots very quickly crashed through the front lines of Ramesses II's camp, but were quickly slowed by the impending obstacles of such a large camp. Even so, they created widespread panic amongst these troops as well, scattering the forces as they had evidently done with the army of Re. Yet, pharaoh had been alerted by this time to the attack, and in what seems to have been a rather cool, collected effort on his part, first instructed his court, which probably included a few princes, on their defense, and then proceeded to dress himself in armor and prepare his immediate guard for a battle which he would heroically lead. By this time, the Hittite chariotry forces were concentrated within the camp and perhaps at a point where they had become somewhat disorganized. They were probably also in a position where maneuverability of their much larger chariots was difficult because of obstacles within the camp. Further, after attacking the Re column and wheeling northward for the camp of Amun, their horses must have surely been exhausted. Doubtless, they had even lost a few of their kind in the running battle that was even now continuing. Now, it was Ramesses II who: ":...appeared in glory like his father Montu, he assumed the accoutrements of battle, and he girded himself with his corslet" However, before engaging in the battle, he sought safety for his family members that traveled with him, but thereafter, in a fit of valor, Ramesses II's, together with his personal guard, attacked the charging Hittite forces and, with the superior maneuverability of their chariots, wheeled about in successive attacks on the slower forces of the Hittites. We are told by Ramesses II that: "I found the 2,500 chariots, in whose midst I was, sprawling before my horse. Not one of them found his hand to fight...and they were unable to shoot. They found not their hearts to seize their javelins." The results were that the Egyptians began to pick off the overextended Hittite chariotry. Of course, the fact that the Hittite forces could be dealt with at this point by what was apparently only a fairly small force of Egyptians is another reason why historians believe that there were less then 2,500 chariots in the Hittite attack. However, Ramesses II tells us that he: "caused them to plunge into the water (of the River Orontes), even as crocodiles plunge, fallen upon their faces. I killed among them according as I willed". <img height="400" alt="300Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh4.jpg" width="300" /> However, there may have also been a somewhat larger number of Egyptian forces who stood against the Hittite forces rather than running in the cowardly manner that the reliefs depict. It is difficult to imagine, having been warned of their dire circumstances by the Hittite scouts, that the Amun camp was not highly alert and that the five thousand troops of that division were not in a state of battle readiness. It is more than somewhat likely, given his vanity on such matters, that Ramesses II empathized his own heroism on the walls of his temples at the expense of his armed forces. Irregardless, the Hittite forces began to lose their initial advantage. Overlooking the battle scene along with the nobles and high officials who had accompanied the Hittite army, Muwatallish monarch appears to have been shaken by the Egyptian recovery that he witnessed within the running battle at Ramesses II's camp. In order to save his dwindling forces, he ordered another thousand chariots to the attack. This force appears to have consisted of the high nobles who surrounded the king. However, several pieces of information should be closely examined at this point. First, it is argued that this second force could not have been as great as one thousand chariots, for the logistics of quickly sending that large of force immediately into battle would have been difficult, if not impossible. However, the fact that the nobility within the Hittite forces were now sent into battle also suggests that the initial commitment of Hittite chariotry must have been substantial. Though perhaps not as many as 2,500 chariots, it seems to have left the Hittites with only the elite nobility in reserve. <img height="195" alt="350Ã—195" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/chariot16.jpg" width="350" /> Secondly, it has been suggested by highly authoritative sources that the initial chariot attack was actually unintentional. Some scholars believe that the Hittite chariots may have simply been scouting the Egyptian forces, but when they broke from the scrub trees and saw the Army of Re, they had little choice other than crashing through the Egyptian column. These analysts argue that, had the attack been intentional with a force as large as 2,500 chariots, they could have and should have completely decimated the Egyptian forces. <img height="206" alt="375Ã—206" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/chariot13.jpg" width="375" /> However, the fact that Muwatallish was in fact observing the battle with forces ready to reinforce the initial chariot attack, seems to indicate that the battle was no accident, though many questions do remain on this matter. For example, during the entire event, no Hittite infantry seem to have ever been committed to the battle, which leaves us with an awkward gap in our understanding of the battle. As the Hittite reinforcements entered the fray, the Egyptian forces must have themselves been exhausted from their initial encounter with the enemy forces. If they were aware of the second wave of Hittite chariotry as they charged the camp, the men surrounding Ramesses II must have surely felt doomed. However, Ramesses II seems to have been a lucky man throughout his long life, and now he was particularly fortuitous. As the Hittite forces approached the Egyptian camp, suddenly, and seemingly out of nowhere, the Ne'arin appeared, turning the impending disaster into a route of the Hittite forces. <img height="400" alt="295Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh10.jpg" width="295" /> It is probable that the Hittites did not know about the Ne'arin. This term means "young men" and infers that they were perhaps a crack Canaanite unit who's loyalty to Ramesses II was beyond reproach. It has been suggested that, rather than an elite unit, this may have actually been the Army of Set, though the reliefs indicate otherwise. It was probably no accident that they showed up at this point, though the exact timing was certainly lucky. These forces had probably been ordered to join up with the main body of the Egyptian army on a specific day. Nevertheless, the Hittite forces were sent scurrying back across the Orontes river and we are told that many nobles and men of importance within the Hittite confederation lay dead on the battle field, or were swept away by the river in their panicked retreat. The next day, there may have been some additional fighting according to some accounts, but this may have also referenced the lashing that Ramesses II would give his troops for their cowardly actions. In the reliefs documenting the battle, Ramesses II states that: "None of you was there...None rose to lend me his hand in my fight...None of you came later to tell the story of his heroic deeds in Egypt...The foreigners who saw me, praise my name to the end of all lands where I was not known...Since ancient times a man was honored for his fighting abilities, but I will not reward any of you, as you have abandoned me when I was alone fighting my enemies." It has even been suggested that, even as Muwatallish overlooked the scene, Ramesses II may have dispatched a number of his troops to the netherworld. More importantly, what happened next almost negates the resounding victory claimed by Ramesses II. He agreed to a truce with the Hittite King, who we are told pleaded with Ramesses II stating: "Suteh are you, Baal himself, your anger burns like fire in the land of Hatti... our servant speaks to you and announces that you are the son of Re. He put all the lands into your had, united as one. The land of Kemi, the land of Hatti, are at your service. They are under your feet. Re, your exalted father, gave them to you so you would rule us. It is good that you should kill your servants?... Look at what you have done yesterday. You have slaughtered thousands of your servants....You will not leave any inheritance. Do not rob yourself of your property, powerful king. glorious in battle, give us breath in our nostrils." Of course, this text obviously offers a view by the Egyptians. It may be that both parties to the truce realized that additional battles might have decimated both armies to the extent that they may ver well have become vulnerable to other powers within the region. Furthermore, Ramesses II was obviously facing a crises within the ranks, so we are told that: "His Majesty turned back in peace to Egypt, together with his infantry and his chariotry being with him" Ramesses II later signed a peace treaty with the Hittites which would forever place Kadesh out of Egyptian hands. From this, it is evident that no real victory took place, or at least not one that gave Ramesses II an obvious edge over his enemies. In fact, it would seem that the Hittites army even shadowed the Egyptian forces as they headed home. <img height="196" alt="500Ã—196" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh12.jpg" width="500" /> <img height="205" alt="500Ã—205" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/qadesh13.jpg" width="500" /> A drawing of the reliefs at the Temple of Luxor depicting the Battle of Kadesh. The bottom register shows Ramesses II single-handedly charging the enemey Eventually, what Ramesses II failed to do to the Hittites would be accomplished instead by the Sea People, who would infiltrate the Hittite lands and eventually cause that empire to collapse. But for now, the Hittites were no longer Egypt's great enemy, for later, Ramesses II would take perhaps several of Hattusilis III's (successor to Muwatallish) daughters as his queens and there would be much correspondence between the two courts. See Also :::: <img height="142" alt="100Ã—142" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/tuth1-3.jpg" width="100" /> <a href="http://groups.zorpia.com/group/Foreigners_love_egypt/announcement/1933920" rel="nofollow">The Battle of Kadesh, Part I</a> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939337 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:43 EDT The Battle of Kadesh, Part I http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939336 <div id="discussionBody" style="WHITE-SPACE: normal">The Battle of Kadesh, Part I : The Battle of Kadesh is one of the most well known military campaigns of history because it is the earliest battle that can be reliably reconstructed in detail from various records on both sides of the conflict. Fought between Ramesses II, one of Egypt's best known pharaohs, and the Hittites under Muwatallish (along with a number of allies), this battle over control of Syrian territory has received considerable attention by many analysts over the years. However, in order to completely understand this historical event, it is necessary to examine the history that led up to this famous battle, for it was very literally hundreds of years in the making. <img height="425" alt="294Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/kham-2.jpg" width="294" /> From almost the beginning of recorded history, Egypt was active in the Levant region of southern Syria, particularly at the port of Byblos, where the earliest inspirational evidence of an Egyptian king was that of Khasekhemwy of Egypt's 2nd Dynasty. From that time onward, Egypt had some involvement in the region, if only in the realms of diplomacy and trade. However, over an extended period of time, the great powers of the Ancient Near East sought to control Syria in order to exploit the economic resources and trade of the region. Syria was the cross roads of world commerce during Egypt's New Kingdom, where goods from the Aegean and beyond entered the Near East by way of ports such as Ugarit. The ships that docked in these ports dominated maritime trade in the eastern Mediterranean. They carried a rich variety of goods, including copper, tin, chemicals, tools, glass ingots, ivory, faience, jewelry, luxury goods, timber, textiles foodstuff together with other products that were then distributed throughout the Near East and beyond over a network of extensive trade routes. In turn, these same land routes were used by traders who brought raw material such as precious metals, tin, copper, lapis lazuli and other merchandise from as far away as Iran and Afghanistan to sell in the Syrian markets. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/senusret32-1.jpg" /> Hence, it is easy to understand Egypt's involvement in the region. However, though Senusret III (12th Dynasty), seems to have fought one campaign in southern Syria culminating in the capture of the City of Shechem, the early Egyptian's appear to have been, for the most part, rather indifferent regarding this important region. But beginning with Senusret III, who operating out of the new northern capital named Itjtawy established by Amenemhat I in the area of Lisht, the scene was set for a more vigorous foreign policy. Regular envoys began to be sent to such Syrian city-states as Ugarit and Byblos, and there was both an increase in foreign trade and in the fortification of Egypt's northeastern frontier. Overall however, the Egyptian policy in the Levant during the Egypt's Middle Kingdom was relatively naive, ultimately resulting in the Second Intermediate Period. By the 18th Dynasty, Egyptian rulers were adapting a more mature approach to international relations and as early as the reign of Ahmose, who founded the New Kingdom, they began laying down the foundations of an Asiatic empire by campaigning in southern Syria. At the same time, there was an increase in the use of diplomacy resulting in a framework of alliances and treaties. The ancient Near East had an early, strong tradition by which power blocks were built and maintained. There were basically two types of treaties as early as the second millennium BC, distinguished by the Akkadian terms, riksu (a parity treaty) and ade (essentially an oath of loyalty or vassal treaty). While Egypt would become deeply involved in the southern Syria, the use of Akkadian and Babylonian dialects as the primary language of these treaties and related correspondence, however, suggests that Egypt was simply absorbed into an existing network of international diplomacy, the origins of which probably lay in Mesopotamia. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/tuth1-2.jpg" /> During Egypt's New Kingdom, Syrian control was synonymous with "world" power among the predatory empires that sought to use the region's wealth for their own benefit. Hence, over a period of several hundred hears, Egypt, and their primary enemies in the region, Mitanni and Hatti, among other empires, applied considerable effort, including bloody warfare, to control this vitally strategic region. While the motivation of the various "great powers" of the region are clear, more specifically, we can examine more specifically the events that ultimately culminated in Egypt's last and best known Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites. By the time of Tuthmosis III of Egypt's 18th Dynasty, Egypt controlled a considerable region in Southern Syria. However, one of the principal conflicts leading up to this peace with Mitanni was the Battle of Megiddo, where Tuthmosis III squashed a revolt by city-states led by the prince of Kadesh, though backed by Mitanni, Egypt's principal rival in the Levant. However, this was only the first of seventeen campaigns that Tuthmosis III would eventually undertake. Tuthmosis III, sometimes known as the Napoleon of Egypt, backed up his military achievements in the region with a network of garrisons and numerous vassal treaties. Taking a long view of the regions strategic importance, he returned from his campaigns with 36 sons of Lavant chiefs, holding them hostage but also indoctrinating them with Egyptian traditions. They were later returned to their homelands as puppet rulers. This eventually resulted a long term perception by Egypt that southern Syria was a permanent Egyptian territory. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/hittite3.jpg" /> During the reign of Tuthmosis IV (1425-1417 BC), Egypt signed a peace treaty that ended hostilities for really the first time since the aggressive military campaigns of Tuthmosis I, Tuthmosis III and his successor, Amenhotep II, who greatly expanded Egypt's territories in Syria. It was the early revival of the Hittite kingdom that forced Mitanni to make peace with Egypt in order to avert a war on two fronts, though the treaty also served Egypt, which had witnessed a progressive loss of ground to Mitanni in Syria after Tuthmosis III. Tuthmosis IV, Amenhotep II's successor concluded the peace treaty when he married the daughter of the Mitanni king, Artatama. The essence of this peace treaty was that it specifically set the border between the two empires in central Syria. Among other territories, it gave to Egypt Amurru, the Eleutheros valley and Kadesh. In return, the Egyptians gave up their claims to land that had, during the reigns of Tuthmosis I and Tuthmosis III, been held by Egypt. After the peace treaty was established, both Egypt and Mitanni seem to have prospered and indeed, this period established the wealth of Egypt's New Kingdom, as tribute flowed in from the Canaanite possessions. For some three decades, goods flowed unimpeded along the grade routes as the region enjoyed relative tranquillity. Egypt depended on the Eleutheros valley, which crossed the territory known as Amurru, in order to access their Syrian holdings along the Orontes River. This same route was earlier used by the Egyptian armies as they marched on the Mitanni possessions in northern Syria prior to the peace treaty. To the Egyptians, the Eleutheros valley was of essential strategic importance, but in order to maintain this route, the city state of Kadesh, which dominated the western end of the Valley and that laid astride the main Egyptian invasion route into northern Syria, also had to be under Egyptian control. Though the Egyptians had given up their claims in Northern Syria under the Tuthmosis IV's peace treaty, if ever their imperial aspirations in that region were revived, Kadesh would be needed. It was the importance of Kadesh and Amurru that would eventually lead to the ultimate conflict between Egypt and Hatti. However, the trouble did not begin with the Hittites, but rather with the emergence of a nascent political entity in Amurru. The territory of Amurru had not been a legitimate kingdom when the peace treaty was signed, but under the strong leadership of Abdi-Ashirta, and later his son Aziru, the inhabitants of this region formed at least enough of a coherence that, by the end of the 14th century BC, they were able to form a kingdom stretching between the Mediterranean Sea and the Orontes valley. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/kadesh11.jpg" /> Being clever fellows, abdi-Ashirta and his son, while professing loyalty to their overlord Amenhotep III in Egypt, took advantage that pharaoh's relative indifference to Egypt's holdings in the region by expanding the new Amurru kingdom at the expense of a number of his neighbors. Even when these small states, who were vassals of Egypt, protested to the pharaoh, their complaints went unanswered by action. The matter became so serious in fact that Mitanni deemed it necessary to take military action in order to keep this nominally Egyptian vassal under control. Egypt did eventually send a military expedition to the area, and for a while, the problems created by Amurru were removed by the death of Abdi-Ashirta. However, the stage was set for wider, and more problematic troubles. During the first half of the 14th century BC, the Hittites, under the powerful rule of their king, Suppiluliumas, began to seriously demolish the position of the Kingdom of Mitanni in northern Syria, resulting in the unraveling of the international status quo that had existed since the peace treaty of Tuthmosis IV. Suppiluliumas ascended the Hittite throne in approximately 1380 BC, and almost immediately began to assert a Hittite claim to Syria. At first, he attacked territories held by Mitanni, of course creating open hostilities between the two empires. He began by invading and conquering the small states of Aleppo, Alalakh, Nuhashshe and Tunip in northern Syria. When the Mitanni rulers attempted to reestablish their control in the region, the Hittite monarch used this as an excuse for a second Syrian war. Suppiluliumas declared these former Mitannian vassal states to be rebels. However, rather than attacking them, he crossed over the River Euphrates and marched directly south, campaigning against the Mitanni empire directly. In a rapid military action, he surprised the Mitanni army so badly that he was able to occupied and sacked the capital, Washukkanni. Only then did he turn west, crossing over the Euphrates once again to enter Syria, where his true objectives lay. Now, there was little in the way of a Mitanni empire to stand in his way, so the Syrian states rapidly fell, one after the other, to the Hittites. Suppiluliumas lists them as Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Arakhtu, Qatna and Nuhashshe. In the processes, Egypt let slip away the important Ugarit port (reportedly without battle) and the strategically essential Kadesh, and without even a fight. These campaigns occurred during the reign of Amenhotep IV, better known to most as Akhenaten. Certainly this pharaoh must have been focused on his new religion revolving around the Aten (sun disk), and critics have used his inaction on this matter as evidences of his disinterest in Egypt's Asiatic empire. In reality though, Egypt's relationship with the Mitanni empire had cooled considerably in the previous few years, and so the ruler cared little about the events in northern Syria outside his holdings. Furthermore, the Hittite king had also made it clear beforehand that his campaign was directed against Mitanni and its Syrian dependencies only. In fact, it was the Kadesh king himself, by unilaterally attempting to halt the Hittite advance southward under the belief that he was acting in the interests of his Egyptian overlord, which forced Suppiluliumas to capture the city. Most of the leaders of the city, including the king and his son, Aitakama, were carried off to Hattusas (Hattushash, modern Boghazkoy in Turkey), the Hittite capital. However, in order to demonstrate their claim of having no design on Egyptian territory, Aitakama was returned to Kadesh, where he renewed the city's status as an Egyptian vassal. This seems though, to have been a ruse. Upon Aitakama return, other Egyptian vassal cities began to report attempts on his part to subvert them to the Hittite side. In fact, Aitakama even attacked Upe, an Egyptian vassal. Still, Egypt's only response to this situation was to charge Aziru, the ruler of Amurru, to protect the pharaoh's interests in the region. Of course, this only gave Aziru the opportunity to exploit the Egyptians once again, as his father had done, by expanding Amurru's borders at the expense of his neighboring vassal states. In fact, word finally reached Egypt that Aziru too was flirting with the Hitties, and had even entertained envoys sent by Suppiluliumas. Finally, a demand was made for Aziru to present himself at the Egyptian court, while Kadesh was declared to be in revolt. Aziru reluctantly agreed to travel to the court of Akhenaten where his was forced to stay for several years. Military action was now clearly called for, and though there is little in the way of documentary evidence, most historians believe that Akhenaten did indeed send troops to attack Kadesh. However, this action apparently failed, though the recovery of Kadesh became the focus of Egyptian military efforts down until the time of Ramesses II of Egypt's 19th Dynasty. However, regardless of how important Egypt's holdings in Syria might have appeared to earlier and later rulers, the Nilotic kingdom utterly failed to maintain any type of balance of power in the region. Suppiluliumas began to consolidate his position in the region by placing Aleppo, as well as Carchemish which had by now also fallen to the Hittites, under the rule of his sons. Thereafter, they set about establishing their own armies so that the loyalty of the Hittite vassal states in Syria could be closely controlled. Hence, there was considerably military presence in Syria, countered by almost no Egyptian counter forces. When the pharaoh though that Aziru's loyalties were firmly with the Egyptians, he was finally released, but with the balance of power in the region obviously on the side of the Hittites, he quickly revoked his vassal oath to Egypt for the protection of Suppiluliumas. Now, Kadesh and Amurru, together with the Eleutheros valley were lost to the Egyptians, but while the Hittites may have come to view this as their permanent territory, the Egyptians never shared that view, and as the military men of the late 18th and early 19th Dynasty came to the throne, there was no doubt that they would seek to regain what was lost. Unfortunately, any such ambition was muted in the face of reorganizing Egypt after the troubles of the Amarna period of Akhenaten's rule. However, after the death of Tutankhamun in 1352, military men seized the throne of Egypt and held it for the next thirty two years. An interesting side note to this was that, upon Tutankhamun's death, his wife sent a messenger to Suppiluliumas asking to marry one of his sons. Suspicious, as well he should have been, he first substantiated the origin of the request, before agreeing to send one of his sons to Egypt. What a windfall he must have felt this was, but we believe that it was probably Ay who discovered this treachery and had the son killed in route to Egypt. Ay then married Nefertiti to become one of Egypt's last pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty. Soon, Nefertiti disappeared from recorded history. While the time was not yet ripe for a Syrian campaign, the empire did undergo a major shift in policy. Rule by proxy had clearly not worked for the Egyptians in vassal territory, so this policy was replaced by actual military occupation. Now, policy was often dictated by the military, and as early as the reign of general turned pharaoh, Horemheb, we see indications of a will to recover Egypt's lost territories and so regain the grandeur of the pre-Amarna period. Probably in anticipation of renewed hostilities, Horemheb began to reestablish the old Hyksos capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, for this was an excellent locale from which to launch Syrian campaigns due to its proximity to routes leading to Canaan and Syria. Avaris became a forward operating base where Egyptian troops could rapidly be deployed to Syria. While Horemheb apparently never got around to launching such a campaign, his successor after the brief reign of Ramesses I, did just that. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/seti1-2.jpg" /> It is clear that Ramesses I's successor Seti I had, from the very beginning, intentions of retrieving Egypt's position in Syria. He sought to recapture Egypt's greatness, even taking as one of his titles, "Repeater of Births, signaling a new era. Before the close of his first year on the Egyptian throne, he led an army into Palestine to eradicate a coalition of hostile Canaanite princes and continued north into Lebanon. Significantly, and setting a trend for the future, Pharaoh lead his army for perhaps the first time since the reign of Tuthmosis IV. During the Armarna period, military action had mostly involved minor campaigns, mostly police actions, but now, the full army would be welded by the king, personally. He, as his son and successor, Ramesses II, took the policy of Tuthmosis III as their own in Asia. By his second year, he led an army northward to begin his offensive against the Hittite empire and the first battles between the two great kingdoms. Today we can still see the records made of Seti's Syrian campaigns in the west wing of his war monument at Karnak. Here, he had recorded: "...the ascent that Pharaoh...made in order to destroy the land of Kadesh and the land of Amurru". We believe that he made good on at least one of these claims by a victory stela recovered from Kadesh that bears his name and evidencing the capture of the city by his Egyptian army. However, many scholars believe he never succeeded at this time in taking Amurru. Yet, with Kadesh in hand, he was able to stage campaigns into northern Syria where he met and defeated at least one Hittite army (though probably composed of vassal forces). That, given the gravity of this situation, the principal Hittite forces did not immediately take action has led some scholars to believe that they were occupied elsewhere, perhaps in Assyria. Indeed, the Hittite empire was having problems with its eastern neighbors, and may have had to tolerate Seti I's triumphs for a while. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramesses2anat2-1.jpg" /> Yet, indications as evidenced by the annals of Mursilis seem to point to Kadesh's return to Hittite hands prior to Seti I's death in 1304 BC, but if this was the result of a treaty, as some suggest, it was not to the liking of his son and successor, Ramesses II. The first three years of Ramesses II's reign seem to have been marked by peace, but in his fourth year, and for reasons largely unknown to us, Amurru suddenly decided to defect back to Egyptian control. The new king appears to have quickly led an army northward in order to formally receive an oath of submission by the Amurru king, Benteshina. Not at all oblivious to Egypt's aspirations in northern Syria, the new Hittite king, Muwatallish. recognized that in order to protect his holdings in Syria, particularly the strategic states of Aleppo and Carchemish, he would have to secure Kadesh. To his advantage, unlike the days of his father, there was no immediate Assyrian threat to distract him, so in the winter of 1301 BC, he set about organizing an army to recover Amurru and protect Kadesh. The venue of the coming conflict was never in doubt by either party. They would meet beneath the walls of Kadesh in one of the great battles of history in order to settle by trial of arms the future of their respective empires in Syria. </div> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939336 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:41 EDT The Pharaonic Village http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939335 <div class="TextSizeLarge" id="discussionTitle" style="PADDING-BOTTOM: 12px">The Pharaonic Village was founded by Dr.Hassan Ragab Ph.D., who was the person who rediscovered the ancient Egyptian art of paper â€“ making (Papyrus). <img height="262" alt="400Ã—262" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage12-1.jpg" width="400" /> The Pharaonic Village is Egypt's historic park. It's a unique place where Egypt's entire history is explained in 2 to 3 hours including our ancient history as well as our modern history. Visiting The Pharaonic Village is recommended to be at the beginning of the trip to Egypt. It is located on an island in the Nile, just 3 miles south of the center of Cairo. In this village you are transported by floating amphitheaters, and a hundred actors and actresses demonstrate scenes from ancient Egypt (Papyrus making, sculpting, home buildingâ€¦.etc.). <img height="290" alt="400Ã—290" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage10-1.jpg" width="400" /> In addition, the village has a complete replica of king Tutankhamun's tomb with all its treasures as well as 12 new museums, 4 related to ancient Egypt (mummification and medicine, pyramids building, arts and beliefs, ancient Egyptian boats) and 5 museums related to other periods in Egyptian history (Cleopatra's museum, Coptic history, Islamic civilization, Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, Egypt's modern history museum). There are also 3 museums related to our late three presidents, Mohamed Naguib, Nasser and Sadat). <img height="290" alt="400Ã—290" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage9-1.jpg" width="400" /> Also the village is a wonderful place for children as it includes an interesting amusement park "Tut land", and an "Art Center". Also you can go on our Yacht "Nefertari" with which you can make a pleasant trip on the Nile. <img height="266" alt="400Ã—266" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage1-1.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="262" alt="400Ã—262" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage11-2.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="295" alt="400Ã—295" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage7-1.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="267" alt="400Ã—267" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage8-1.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="270" alt="400Ã—270" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage5-1.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="266" alt="400Ã—266" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage2-1.jpg" width="400" /> <img height="267" alt="400Ã—267" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ThePharaonicVillage4-1.jpg" width="400" /> The Official WebSite " <a href="http://www.pharaonicvillage.com/" rel="nofollow">The Pharaonic Village</a> " </div> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939335 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:40 EDT Merenptah, the 4th King of Egypt's 19th Dynasty http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939334 Merenptah, the 4th King of Egypt's 19th Dynasty <img height="86" alt="125Ã—86" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/merenptah6.jpg" width="125" /> By the time that Ramesses II died, he had apparently outlived twelve of his sons, so it was his 13th son, Merenptah who ascended the throne of Egypt. Merenptah was old himself by this time, probably nearly sixty years old, and his reign was rather dull, as well as short lived (perhaps only nine or ten years) in comparison with that of his father's reign. According to the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, he ruled from 1213 until 1203 BC, while Clayton provides a reign from 1212 until 1202 BC. Merenptah (also hetep-her-maat, and commonly also called Merneptah) was the king's birth name, meaning "Beloved of Ptah, Joyous is Truth). His throne name was Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru, which means "The Soul of Re, Beloved of the Gods". Merenptah was probably the fourth child of Ramesses II's second principle wife, Istnofret (Isisnofret). He was married to queens Istnofret (Isisnofret), who must have surely been his sister, and possibly a queen Takhat. His son was Seti-Merenptah, who probably ascended the throne sometime after his father as Seti II. However, Seti II's reign may have been initially usurped by a Amenmesse who may have been a son of Takhat, though Takhat's marriage to Merenptah is far from certain. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/merenptah5.jpg" /> Merenptah is almost completely unknown until the 40th year of Ramesses II's reign. In fact he may have been heir to the throne of Egypt for about twelve years prior to Ramesses II's death, but in Ramesses II's year 40, we known the prince was made General of the Army. Perhaps it is not surprising that what we know of Merenptah's rule is mostly about his military activities. However, he appears not to have become the heir to the throne until Ramesses II's 55th regnal year, when Ramesses II was celebrating his 80th birthday, and Merenptah his 48th. In fact, in the last decade of Ramesses II's life, Merenptah was probably the real power behind the throne, as Ramesses II was well advanced in age. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/merenptah2.jpg" /> Artist Portrait of what Merenptah may have looked like In fact, he is mainly attested to by three great inscriptions, including 80 lines on a wall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, a large stele with 35 readable lines from Athribis in the Delta and the great Victory Stele from his ruined mortuary temple at Thebes, with 28 lines. All of these text refer to his military campaigns. The Victory Stele is unique. It was usurped by Merenptah from the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III at Thebes, and is dated to the third day of the third month of the third season so it may have been written around the summer of 1207. In it, Merenptah lists enemy conquests, but the most interesting reference is a very rare mention of Israel. It may be the oldest non biblical reference to that country. Because of this, Merenptah has often been thought to be the pharaoh of the Exodus, though modern opinion leans against such an identification. In part, the stele states that: "The princes are prostrate saying: "Shalom!" Not one of the Nine Bows lifts his head: Tjehenu is vanquished, Khatti at peace, Canaan is captive with all woe. Ashkelon is conquered, Gezer seized, Yanoam made nonexistent; Israel is wasted, bare of seed, Khor is become a widow for Egypt. All who roamed have been subdued. By the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun, Son of Re, Merenptah, Content with Maat, Given life like Re every day." Merenptah apparently did face a number of military problems. These included a "flash" revolt in Syria, which was quickly crushed. There were also problems on Egypt's western borders involving the southern Libyans and the Sea People, who apparently had silently infiltrated the Delta, and around year five of Merenptah's rule, attempted an invasion. However, with rapid mobilization of his forces and a pre-emptive strike, Merenptah was able to vanquish these enemies, apparently slaughtering many of them. Also, the Libyans apparently inspired the Nubians to the south to also revolt, but Merenptah's quick response to the Libyans allowed him to immediately turn south and inflict a crushing blow on those rebels as well. However, Merenptah did attempt to maintain the peaceful relations of his father. The Hittite King in Syria faced a possible invasion from the north and widespread famine, so under the term of the treaty they had made with Ramesses II, they requested assistance from Merenptah, who provided them with much needed grain. One interesting facet to Merenptah's reign was that he moved the administrative center for Egypt from Piramesse (Pi-Ramesse), his fathers capital, back to Memphis, where he constructed a royal palace next to the temple of Ptah. This palace was excavated in 1915 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum led by Clarence Fischer, and yielded fine architectural elements. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/merenptah1.jpg" /> Merenptah's tomb is number KV 8 located in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank of Luxor (ancient Thebes). The king probably died around 1202 BC, but his mummy was not found within his tomb. In the 19th century, this apparently added to the speculation about him being the Pharaoh of the Exodus, since that king's body would have probably been washed away in the Red Sea. However, that theory was confounded when, in 1898, his mummy was discovered among 18 others in the mummy cache discovered in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35). He also built a mortuary temple that lies behind the Colossi of Memnon on the West Bank at Luxor. Much of it was built with stone robbed from the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III. The structure is currently being studied by Horst Jartz with the Swiss Institute in Cairo. Reports indicate that some of the fragments discovered include well preserved reliefs, perhaps some of the finest to be found in any temple at Thebes. The Egyptian Ministry of Culture has now decided to turn this complex into an open museum. In addition to his tomb and temple we also know that he added to the Osireion at Abydos and also built at Dendera. Merenptah is further attested to by a "wall stele" at Amada, four almost identical stele from Nubia (at Amada, Amarah West, Wadi Sebua, Aksha), blocks from Elephantine, a decree from West Silsila, an inscription in the small temple of Medinet Habu, stele from Kom el-Ahmar and Hermopolis (along with other inscriptions), a victory column at Heliopolis, and several monument remains at Piramesse. Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939334 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:39 EDT Amun-her-shepeshef, First Son of Ramesses II http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939333 <div>Amun-her-shepeshef, First Son of Ramesses II The First son of born to Ramesses the Great, was Amun-her-wenemef, meaning Amun Is on His Right Hand". The child's mother was Ramesses II's Great Wife, Nefertari. Had he outlived his father, he would have therefore become Pharaoh, the King of Egypt. Amun-her-wenemef came into the world while his father was still co-regent to his father, Seti I. Therefore, Amun-her-wenemef probably was the current king's first grandson. <img height="425" alt="236Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amunher2.jpg" width="236" /> When Ramesses II Ascended the throne of Egypt upon Set I's death, Amun-her-wenemef's name was changed to Amun-her-shepeshef, which means, "Amun Is with his Strong Arm". We do not know exactly why his name was changed, but it was not unique among Ramesses II's sons for him to do so, and he may have had other names as well. It was once thought that Seth-her-khepeshef was an individual son of Ramesses II, but current though on the matter is leaning to this being another name for Amun-her-shepeshef. In fact, many names in the Egyptian royal family could change, for example, depending on what part of the country they were in. Hence, in Thebes, the prince might have been called Amun-her-khepeshef, but if he were in Memphis, where the principle god was Ptah, then he might have been called Ptah-her-khepeshef. Amun-her-khepeshef had a number of titles, some of which were unique to him, as the heir apparent, but others that were shared by many of Ramesses II's other sons by principle wives. His titles included "Fan-bearer on the King's Right hand; Heir; Hereditary prince; Royal Scribe; Generalissimo (of His Majesty); Eldest and Bodily King;s Son; First King's Son; Commander of the Troops; Effective Confidant and Beloved of Him". He may have also had the titles, "Chief of the Secrets of the King's House; Lord in Charge of the Entire Land, Sem-priest of the Good God, Delegate and Judge of the Two lands, Controller of Lands Far-flung, if indeed he also has the name, Seth-her-khepeshef. These last titles were discovered on a stele in the eastern Delta site of Qantir. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amunher4.jpg" /> Amun-her-khepeshef hunting with Ramesses II Of all the sons, only he seems to have held the titles, "Effective Confidant" and "Commander of the Troops". Most of the other titles were held by one son or another. Of his unique titles, "Commander of the Troops" is the most interesting. Of course, the title indicates that he held a high military position, yet we hear little of him in battle after his father's early campaigns in Nubia and western Asia. He is depicted in battle within a number of well known scenes of the battle, but whether he actually took part in the military actions is still debated. Some Egyptologists believe he may have been a teenager, old enough to have actually took part in these battles. Others believe he was much younger and the scenes were only meant to enhance his image. If he did take part in the battles, then he was in one of the best known campaigns in antiquity; the Battle of Kadesh. It was the first battle in history to have been well documented, because Ramesses II appears to have been very pleased with its victorious outcome, though if it was a glorious victory is more then a little debatable. However, it is very likely that Amun-her-khepeshef, along with his younger brother Khaemwese, did at least travel with their father to the battle, even if neither one of them physically engaged the enemy. <img height="238" alt="525Ã—238" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amunher1.jpg" width="525" /> The Battle of Kadesh Amun-her-shepeshef is actually well attested in scenes, but many of them or simply processions of sons and sometimes daughters. He is shown in processions with other brothers or sisters at the Temple at Abu Simbel, the Temple of Seti I at Abydos, the Temple of Derr, Luxor Temple, where a number of scenes are found, the Ramesseum on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes), and at Wadi es-Sebua, where he is shown in procession in two scenes. However, he is shown in a number of scenes that are more action oriented, such as hunting scenes with his father and several other brothers. These scenes may be found at the Temple of Abu Simbel where he and two other brothers are shown in war chariots and at Beit el-Wadi, where he and Khaemwese are also shown in chariots. At Karnak he is with eleven other brothers handling prisoners, while there is a similar scene at Luxor but with fewer brothers. <img height="225" alt="294Ã—225" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amunher3.jpg" width="294" /> Amun-her-shepeshef in a war chariot Unfortunately, Amun-her-shepeshef did not outlive his father. He died in year 40 of his father's reign. Amun-her-shepeshef was probably between the age of 40 and 45. In fact, Ramesses II outlived his first twelve sons, with Merenptah, the thirteenth who may probably have been sixty at the time, finally succeeding him. We believe that Amun-her-shepeshef was buried in KV 5 in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor. This huge and utterly unique tomb with over 150 chambers was most likely built for at least three or four of Ramesses II's sons, if not many more. Excavation in the tomb continues under the direction of one of the living legends of modern Egyptology, Kent Weeks. I am sure we can count on Dr. Weeks to painstakingly dig out ever shred of information that the tomb may yield, so one day we may know much more about this young prince of Egypt. </div> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939333 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:38 EDT Ramesses II The Military Leader http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939332 <div>Ramesses II The Military Leader Were we to take the depictions and reliefs of Ramesses II, Seti I, there successors and their predecessors at face value, it might lead us to sometimes believe that their contact with neighbors was always on the field of battle. Many of these reliefs on the exterior of temple walls portray war as both thrilling and glamorous, having also religious undertones. On these walls we are, repeatedly, almost like the high budget advertisements of our modern society, treated to scenes of the king vanquishing the enemy and thus fulfilling his duty to defeat the forces of chaos and preserve ma'at. Again and again, we see the brave pharaoh driving his chariot behind fiery steeds as he fearlessly leads his nervous troops into the fray. He stands single handedly sometimes in his two man chariot alone, firing arrows as he charges ahead, or at other times, beats his cringing enemies to death with a club. <img src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary1.jpg" /> The message is clear. Pharaoh triumphant sacrifices his enemies to the greater glory of Egypt and her gods. The Defeated enemy invariably adopts an attitude of total submission, for he knows that it would be futile to struggle against his fate. These enemies very often included the Nubians to the south of Egypt, the Libyans to Egypt's west and the Asiatics to the east. They appear again and again to suffer at the hands of pharaohs, as depicted on temple walls, even when they were not a threat. <img height="400" alt="332Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary4.jpg" width="332" /> No one was better at this propaganda than Ramesses the Great, who always won his wars and always forced his enemies to grovel at his feet. For example, even though many scholars believe he lost ground with the Battle of Kadesh, he nevertheless had no fewer than ten inscriptions, a longer "poem" and a shorter "bulletin" carved on the walls of five temples, along with accompanying reliefs. These, of course, all depicted Ramesses II victorious, but few of these accounts conform to our modern standards of historic reporting. In fact, some battles depicted by later pharaohs, were actually campaigns of earlier kings whom the current pharaoh wished to emulate, while others depicted kings such as Amenhotep III and his son, Akhenaten smiting enemies when in fact they probably never personally participated in military actions at all. <img height="375" alt="310Ã—375" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary6.jpg" width="310" /> An examination of Ramesses II's campaigns, as depicted on the walls of his various temples, seems to show that his military leadership was not overly impressive, if stripped of their hyperbole. If the Battle of Kadesh, his most documented campaign, is any indication, he was almost certainly an unimaginative strategist who was better as a front line warrior than as a military leader. We must give him credit for his personal involvement in a number of campaigns, as well as his good intentions, and he did expand Egypt's territory, even in southern Syria. Because of the peace treaty with the Hittites, he was also able to use these possessions to increase the wealth of Egypt. Just as the Egyptian temple walls were a fortress against the chaos of the secular world protecting the peace, or ma'at within, so too were Egypt's borders. The Two Lands (Egypt) might also be viewed in a certain way as a temple to the Egyptian gods, for pharaoh ruled the world. He had an religious duty to protect its borders from the corrupt and vile foreigners. So from a fairly early age, Ramesses, as the future pharaoh, was trained in the art of warfare. We know that he probably accompanied his father, Seti I on some of his campaigns, and as he grew older, was placed in charge of various military actions. In fact, when Egypt's ships and northernmost towns suddenly found themselves under serious threat by pirates (Sherden), it was Ramesses II, while still co-regent in one of his earliest actions as a commander, who was placed in charge of their elimination. Posting soldiers and ships at strategic points along the coast, Ramesses II waited patiently until the Sherden appeared. He surprised and captured them, inducting many of their survivors into the Egyptian army. While the Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess, he nevertheless did enjoy more than a few outright victories over the enemies of Egypt. <img height="275" alt="306Ã—275" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary5.jpg" width="306" /> Ramesses II must be applauded for his protection of Egypt proper's borders. After all, this was one of pharaoh's prime directives. Not long after he neutralized the threat posed by Sherden pirates, he established a defensive line along Egypt's northwestern frontier. Archaeologists have identified at least three of these forts to the west of the modern city of Alexandria, and another two in the western Delta at Tell Abqa'in and Kom el-Hisn. These were probably only a part of an extensive chain of forts protecting Egypt's northwestern regions. While not a new innovation, these forts which were often built near water holes in order to deny access to Libyans infiltrating the prosperous Delta, probably became very useful when, during the reigns of several of his successors (Merenptah and Ramesses III), Libyans attempted a larger scale invasion into the region. <img height="425" alt="239Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary3.jpg" width="239" /> Yet, Ramesses II's military aspirations were to the east, and for good reason. Since Nubia was virtually a province of Egypt during his reign, and there was little to be gained to Egypt's west, imperial gains could really only be realized in southern Syria. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms there were occasional campaigns against specific fortified Canaanite towns, but Egypt's real involvement with the region was in trade. In fact, so important was this trade to the Canaanites, that after the collapse of Egypt's Old Kingdom, the Canaanite economy failed as well. However, it was not until the New Kingdom, following Ahmose's expulsion of the Hyksos, that Egypt's military attention became focused on southern Syria. By the time of Tuthmosis III, Egypt would see its greatest expansion into southern Syria. However, Egypt never seems to have been very committed to this expansion, or perhaps more correctly, their strategy for holding the region was faulty. There was never a sizable, permanent Egyptian military presence committed to the region. Instead, Egypt depended on the loyalty of local chiefs to oversee their interests, which soon became an undependable means of controlling the region. Egypt would be repeatedly required to mount military campaigns into southern Syria in order to hold, or as often as not, prevent the total collapse of these holdings. This weakness in Egypt's strategic goals were never clearer than in the reign of Ramesses II's father, Seti I. He seems to have had considerable military success in the region, probably for a brief time, increasing Egypt's expansion almost to the extent of his early 18th Dynasty predecessors. This may have included most of southern Syria, as far north as Kadesh. Yet, by the time of his death, much of that territory was lost, and there is no doubt that Ramesses II sought to return it to Egyptian hands. <img height="425" alt="365Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiimilitary7.jpg" width="365" /> As early as the forth year of Ramesses II's rule, the important kingdom of Amurru was returned to Egyptian hands, but this also signaled a great battle to come, for it would ultimately result in the Battle of Kadesh, an action that Ramesses II claimed as a victory, but which most Egyptologists see, at best, as a draw between the Hittites and Egypt. It resulted in a peace treaty that, while excluding the city state of Kadesh which Ramesses II had sought to control, nevertheless allowed a measure of peace and prosperity throughout the remainder of Ramesses II's reign. </div> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939332 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:37 EDT Ramesses II His Family (Specifically, his Childr.. http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939331 <div id="discussionBody" style="WHITE-SPACE: normal"> <div>Ramesses II His Family (Specifically, his Children) How the early, predynastic leadership of Egypt was developed is certainly debatable. However, many Egyptologists believe that the early chieftains gradually gained a sphere of influence because they knew how to harness the Nile River, and the fertility of the Nile Valley. Rather than being warier kings, they knew how to lead others in feeding their people. Throughout Egypt's pharaonic history, the King of Egypt was thought to intercede with the gods to assure fertile Nile floods, and hence, food to feed the masses. This was one of the reasons that great temples were built, and the priesthood furnished with wealth. When the Nile floods came up short, the king could also be blamed as well. But fertility stretched beyond Egypt's crops. At a time when the world's human population was small, and death at birth or early infancy was considerable, human fertility was also important, and it was most important for the Pharaoh, who needed to produce an heir to the throne of Egypt. We believe that fully one third of all children did not live to reach their fifteenth year. <img height="400" alt="310Ã—400" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiichild10.jpg" width="310" /> Producing a crown prince was not always easy, even though the pharaohs often had numerous wives. The ladies of his harem who were expected to produce a future heir were often close family members, including even full sisters at times. Hence, a pharaoh who, even with the "assistance" of a number of queens, prodigiously produced children, including a number of males, might be considerably proud of such a feat. Indeed, Ramesses II of Egypt's 19th Dynasty was such a pharaoh, and because of his long life, this was very lucky, because twelve of his oldest sons would die before their father. In fact, because Ramesses II featured so many of his children in depictions and statuary, and the fact that we have considerable documentary evidence from this period, we learn much about the treatment and importance of royal children, at least during this period, some of which might seem surprising to us. For example, Ramesses II provided us with a number of processions of both sons and daughters (sometimes together), depicted on the walls of his monuments at such locations as Thebes (The Temple of Luxor and the Ramesseum) and Abu Simbel. While Ramesses II may have had any number of other children by very minor consorts, those of his principal wives (see also, his women) are ordered apparently by age, only, without regard to the importance of their mothers, with most probably even the children of minor wives following those of Nefertari and Iset-Nofret (his two principal wives). Indeed, the order of this list appears to have probably been the same as the line of succession (for the sons) so that those of Iset-Nofret bearing the same opportunities (given their birth order) as that of Nefertari, Ramesses II's actual chief wife. Of course, it would eventually be Merenptah, a son of Iset-Nofret, who would inherit the throne of Egypt. <img height="375" alt="318Ã—375" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiichild2.jpg" width="318" /> Perhaps even more interest, given this information, is Iset-Nofret's apparent lack of real importance to Ramesses II. Her image is infrequently depicted, and when it is, seems to have been the work of her famous son, Khaemwese rather than Ramesses II. Yet we find images and references to her daughter, particularly that of Bent'anta (Bintanath, Bint-Anath, Bintanat) who later became the first of Ramesses II's daughters that he married, which predate those of her mother. In many cases, the princesses of consorts were given more importance then their mothers. In any event, it is very notable that even the sons and daughters of relatively minor consorts were given considerably more attention then their mothers, even though they might have never stood a chance of becoming king. How Ramesses II interacted with his children is relatively unknown to us. Some children of the minor queens perhaps saw little of the royal court. They may have even been portrayed in the processions simply to enhance their father's reputation, but it would appear that some thought was given to these children, perhaps especially to those who showed talent. For example, we are told of Prince Simontu, who was Ramesses II's 23 son and who served as an able administrator of the royal vineyard at Memphis. Others, such as Prince Ramesses-Meriamen-Nebweben (son number 46) may have been virtually ignored. He seems to have died during his thirties while still living in one of the harem palaces. <img height="425" alt="236Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiichild3.jpg" width="236" /> However, the sons of the principal queens, particularly those who were the oldest and therefore had a chance to become king, must have received considerably more attention. Perhaps most of these sons accompanied Ramesses II on military expeditions at one time or another, and several of them ended up acquiring a talent of martial leadership, becoming generals. These included his eldest son, Amenhirkhepeshef, who became General-in-Chief, and Prehirwenemef, his third son who was given the titles, "First Brave of the Army" and later "First Charioteer of His Majesty". Most of the sons were probably give the opportunity to prove themselves in battle, but some appear to have not taken to this way of life, such as Khaemwaset, his forth son. His talents seem to have been of a more intellectual nature, so he was allowed, as others, and even encouraged, to purse a career as a priest. In this, he excelled becoming famous as a sage and as the creator of the Serapaeum at Saqqara. Merenptah, the 13th son of Ramesses II who would be lucky enough to eventually outlived his older brothers and become king, was initially responsible for administration of the Delta region as far south as Memphis. While he may not have been recognized officially as a co-regent of his father, he was probably responsible for the kingdoms stewardship during the final twelve years of his father's long life. Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Ramesses II's daughters is what became of the minor princesses. We know what became of the most senior of his daughters who lived past the age of puberty. They were wed to their father, a situation which seems not so unpleasant to them as it would of course be today. However, we know little about most of the other, more minor daughters. Some were no doubt lucky enough to have married brothers, who would accept them, for while a minor prince might marry most anyone, the choice for princesses were usually limited to those of their own royal status. Those that did not marry, as well as some who did, no doubt served the temples and gods in some capacity. Some may have even become minor wives of Ramesses II, though mostly as invisible to us as their mother's might have been. Of Kings and Family The question that many would ask, is how did the royal family of Egypt compare to our own modern families, or for that matter, even modern royal families. Was there intimacy, and intimate moments? Could we find touching scenes of family life, and was there great love between husband, wife and the kids? Regrettably, we may never know the answers to these questions, but we might take a stab at a few responses. For the typical child of the king's harem, and particularly for those of minor kings, intimacy was certainly shared mostly between mother and child. This was probably even true for the youngest children of Ramesses II's principal queens, though at times it is possible that father, mother and their children came together as a family unit. While we find few such depictions during the reign of Ramesses II there are those, for example, during the reign of Akhenaten that do seem to reveal considerable family intimacy, and others from many period that depict ordinary Egyptians displaying great affection for their wives and children. Yet Ramesses II was a hands-on king who spent considerable time during the early period of his reign either traveling back and forth along the Nile, or sometimes away on military campaigns, so he must have had little enough time to form the bonds of fatherhood. <img height="425" alt="288Ã—425" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/ramessesiichild1.jpg" width="288" /> However, we might assume, considering that Ramesses II began his family with both Nefertari and Iset-Nofret prior to his ascending the throne, when his offsprings were few, that we might have witnesses some moments similar to those depicted between Akhenaten, his wife and children. But it is also probable, that as time wore on and the harem swelled, and the eldest of Ramesses II's children passed on before him, that intimacy and deep love might become rare pleasures of this king, his feelings made numb more and more by the memories of earlier losses. In addition, favorites had to be closely controlled, for it probably would have done to show undue emotion to a more joyful younger son at the expense of an Arab parent. Yet, for those first few, there are certainly allusions to Ramesses II's adoration. Of course, for Nefertari, his first "Chief King's Wife", there is the temple at Abu Simbel and the wonderful tomb in the Valley of the Queens, and there were also apparently separate tombs for several of his daughters who became his queens. We also find, built for at least his elder sons, if not for many more of his children, probably the largest tomb ever excavated in Egypt in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes). Yet all of this is relevant, and not at all complete proof of Ramesses II's affection for his wives and children, because in the big scheme of things, certain aspects all of these efforts may have simply promoted the kingship, as well as the deification, of Ramesses II himself. Keep in mind, for example, that while the small temple at Abu Simbel may have been built to honor Nefertari, and her images in monumental form may be found on its facade, it is Ramesses II himself that occupies the walls within. </div> </div> <div class="TextSizeSmall SecondaryTextColor" style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 6px; COLOR: #888; PADDING-TOP: 8px">6 days ago  </div> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939331 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:36 EDT King Amenmesses and His Tomb in the Valley of th.. http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939328 King Amenmesses <img height="84" alt="125Ã—84" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amenmesses6.jpg" width="125" /> Amenmesses is generally considered to be the 5th ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, though most Egyptologists believe he was probably not the legitimate heir to the throne. He succeeded Merneptah as pharaoh, but it was probably Merneptah's son, prince Seti-Merneptah who should have ascended the throne on his father's death. Various theories exist about why he did not. It is very possible that Merenptah may have died suddenly while the crown prince was away, and Amenmesses simply took advantage of the situation. Interesting, but not unpredictable, is that this disorder came only a generation after the strong, but long rule of Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great). <img height="325" alt="216Ã—325" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amenmeses1.jpg" width="216" /> However, it is also very likely that Seti-Merneptah was no other then Seti II, who ruled Egypt just after Amenmesses. It was probably Seti II who scraped the images and inscriptions from that kings monuments, and otherwise usurped Amenmesses' building projects. Therefore, very little is known about this king, who apparently ruled for three or four years. Various Egyptologists give him a reign from between 1202 - 1199 BC and 1203 - 1200 BC. Amenmesses would have been his birth name, but a Greek version. Manetho called him Ammenemes and assigned five years to his rule, though we may also find his named as Amenmeses. His Egyptian name was probably Heqa-waset, which means "Fashioned by Amun, Ruler of Thebes". His throne name was Men-mi-re Setep-en-re, meaning "Eternal like Re, Chosen by Re. It was long believed that Amenmesses was a son of Merneptah by a queen Takhat, though really his origins are unknown, and that he probably married a woman named Baktwerel. However, some Egyptologists have suggested that Takhat and Baktwerel were actually the mother and wife of Ramesses IX. Originally, his parentage was based on the fact that there were scenes and inscriptions related to these two women in Amenmesses tomb, but recent excavations seem to indicate that the tomb, originally meant for Amenmesses was actually usurped for these women. If so, this would probably negate any argument of them being his mother and wife. <img height="314" alt="165Ã—314" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amenmeses2.jpg" width="165" /> There is enough confusion surrounding Amenmesses that some Egyptologists actually place his rule after that of Seti II. Yet, Seti II's name has been written over the name of Amenmesses in several Theban locations, it is generally believed that Seti II succeeded him. Still others believe that Amenmesses usurped Seti II in the middle of Seti II's reign, sometime between years three and five of his rule, which would seem more probable then him ruling after Seti II. It is also possible that Amenmesses only ruled the southern parts of Egypt during Seti IIs reign. If this is true, he may have been a vizier over Nubia named Messui during the time of Merneptah, but this theory has recently been called into question. There has even been speculation that a queen Ti'a, supposed mother of Saptah, the penultimate ruler of the dynasty, may have been a wife of Amenmeses, thus making him the father of the successor to Sety II as part of a rival dynastic branch. It should also be noted that Amenmesses usurped a number of preexisting monuments himself, and though we now believe that tomb KV 10 in the Valley of the Kings was originally began by this king, little other building work exists. Inscriptions bearing his name are mostly only found in Upper Egyptian sites, primarily in the Theban region and in Nubia. These include inscriptions at Karnak, a dedication inscription at the small temple at Medinet Habu, an inscriptions at a chapel at Deir el-Medine and a stela found at Buhen. Perhaps as many as six quartzite statues originally placed along the axis of the hypostyle hall in the Amun Temple at Karnak are thought to be his, though these were also usurped (in the name of Seti II). However, one of these statues thought to belong to Amenmesses has an inscription bearing the title, "the Great Royal Wife" Takhat, lending support to the argument that she actually was his wife. Amenmesses was also, among others, responsible for restoration work on a barque shrine dating from Tuthmosis III that stands before a small temple at Tod. The Tomb of Amenmesses (KV 10) Amenmesses' tomb cannot be visited as it is being excavated, and unless some sort of amazing recovery process is discovered, it may never be a popular tourist attraction. The tomb, located in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes) is mostly incomplete, and much of its decorations have been destroyed. <img height="156" alt="375Ã—156" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amenmesses4.jpg" width="375" /> The tomb has been known since antiquity, and there are signs that it has been visited from classical times. Pococke noted it on hs map of the area in 1743 and it was examined by Burton and Hays, Champollion, Lepsius and Wilkinson during the early 19th century. The decorations of the tomb were mostly recorded and published by Edgene Lefebure in 1883. In the excavation season of 1907 Edward Ayrton used the tomb's corridor as a dinning or work room. However, full scale investigation of the tomb is currently underway by Otto Schaden as a project of the University of Arizona and the University of Memphis. There is little doubt that the results will shed light on this dim corner of Egyptian history. It would seem though, at the moment, that we still do not know whether Amenmesses was ever interred here, or the actual relationship he might have had with Takhat and Baketwerel, for whom part of the tomb was redecorated. <img height="275" alt="325Ã—275" src="http://i236.photobucket.com/albums/ff229/tamerhany/Ancient%20Egypt%20Kings/amenmesses5.jpg" width="325" /> Ruined scene depicting Amenmesses The tomb is a fairly simple affair, and as stated, unfinished. Three descending corridors lead down to a room where the ritual shaft was to be dug, but never was. Within these corridors, we find scenes of king Amenmesses (destroyed) before Re-Horakhty, passages (scenes) from the Litany of Re, the Amduat and in the well room, a scene of Takhat making offerings before deities. After the shaft room, where the tomb becomes level, is the first four pillared hall, with several more scenes. They include Baketwerel making offerings before the gods, and scenes from the Book of the Dead. To the west of the four pillared hall is an unfinished annex. The ceiling of this chamber has been penetrated by the tomb of Ramesses III (KV 11). The original decorative program of the tomb never reached beyond the four pillared hall, though up to that point it was almost identical to that found in the tomb of Merenptah (KV 8). Later, the outer corridors, shaft room and four pillared hall were plastered over and redecorated for Takhat and Baketwere, who we know were royal women. We just do not know their exact position in regards to their son and husband, because the redecoration calls into question their relationship to Amenmesses. Some of this later decoration has fallen off, so that now we find some of the original and some of the later decorations. After the four pillared hall there is another corridor leading to the burial chamber. However, the burial chamber is in reality another corridor that was adapted as for this purpose. There were three mummies found within the tomb including those of two women and a man. They have never been identified. However, fragments of canopic jars and part of a red granite sarcophagus lid, usurped itself from someone named Anketemheb, both inscribed with the name of Takhat, probably indicate that at least she was buried here, so one of the mummies may be hers. Little else has been found (and at least reported at this time). Much of what was found within the tomb was actually intrusive, including fragmentary shabti figures from Seti I, sarcophagus fragments of Ramesses VI and a few other items. Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1939328 Sat, 31 Oct 2009 01:28 EDT The Royal Cults of the Kings of Ancient Egypt http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892708 by Jefferson Monet <table bordercolor="#0066cc" cellspacing="0" bordercolordark="#0066cc" cellpadding="10" width="100%" align="left" bordercolorlight="#0066cc" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" width="100%" bgcolor="#fdffce" height="173"><img height="425" alt="Cult Statue of Tuthmosis III" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult1.jpg" width="299" align="right" border="0" /><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/cults.htm">Ancient Egyptian cults</a> can be divided into several categories, including Divine Cults, which worshipped actual existing gods, Royal Cults for the worship of the king, Private Cults,  animal cults and what might be referred to as other Funerary Cults for the worship of deceased private individuals. Of these, perhaps the second most important, after Divine Cults, were the Royal Cults. The cult of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/kings.htm">king</a> was one of the most prominent features of ancient Egyptian religion. The Egyptian ruler, because of his status as a ntr, or <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/">god</a>, received both a cult during his life and after his death. He (or she) acquired and maintained his divinity as a result of specific kingship rituals, of which, the coronation was clearly the most important. In this ceremony, the king was transformed into a god by means of his union with the royal <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag05012001/magf3.htm">ka</a>, or soul. All previous kings of Egypt had possessed the royal ka, and at his or her coronation, the king became divine as "one with the royal ka when his human form was overtaken by his immortal element, which flows through his whole being and dwells in it". As a god, the King became the son of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/re.htm">Re</a>, the sun god, and he was a manifestation of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/horus.htm">Horus</a>, the falcon god, as well as the son of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/osiris.htm">Osiris</a>. Also, from the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a>, there was increasing emphasis placed on his relationship with <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm">Amun-Re</a>, and he was described as the son of Amun, the king of the gods.  Thus, the king became an intermediary between mankind and the divine, responsible for sustaining the balance of the universe through maintaining <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/maat.htm">ma'at</a>, or divine order. Upon his death, the ancient Egyptians believed that he became fully divine and assimilated with <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/osiris.htm">Osiris</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/re.htm">Re</a>. <img height="244" alt="Karnak, and the Temple of Amun" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult5.jpg" width="375" align="left" border="0" />The kings status as a god depended on his or her union with the royal <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag05012001/magf3.htm">ka</a>, and therefore various rituals were intended to reinforce this relationship during the king's reign. An obvious example was the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/festival.htm">Opet festival</a> that was held each year at the temple of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm">Amun-Re</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karnak.htm">Karnak</a> during the fourth month of the inundation. There, the king had his union with the royal ka renewed and therefore his right to rule reconfirmed. After (almost always) thirty years, the king also celebrated his first <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/festival.htm">sed-festival</a>, which served to reconfirm his relationship to the royal ka as well as to restore his vitality. The practice of the king receiving a royal cult during his lifetime became especially prominent during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a>, beginning with the reign of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenhotep3.htm">Amenhotep III</a>. This cult followed very closely the pattern of the daily temple rituals of other gods, and kings erected for themselves statues, sometimes colossal, so that offerings could be received. There are depictions of the king making offerings to his deified self. These statue represented the royal <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag05012001/magf3.htm">ka</a> of the living king, and when he or she worships their own statue, they are actually worshipping the concept of deified kingship as represented in the royal ka, which the king embodies.  Cults associated with the living pharaoh were more significant during certain periods, and may have been linked with various political, economic and religious trends. For example, this type of cult may have been emphasized during periods of coregency. Evidence suggests that, during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdoms</a>, some successors could have been coronated prior to the death of the elder king. In these cases, the elder ruler may have been projected into a fully divine role, perhaps conceptualized as a living <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/osiris.htm">Osiris</a>. However, clearly the most important development in the cult of the living king occurred during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a>, focusing on his or her divine birth. The key here is that the pharaoh was engendered not by the seed of his actual paternal father, but rather by that of Amun himself. Cults focused on the divinity of the ruling monarch could have been linked to a need to legitimize the king's claim to the throne by rulers such as <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn05.htm">Hatshepsut</a>, the Early <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn18a.htm">18th Dynasty</a> female ruler. <img height="424" alt="Akhenaten and his family worshipping the Aten" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult10.jpg" width="375" align="left" border="0" />Yet, the expanded role of the cult of the living pharaoh persisted through the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a>. It's strength perhaps may be seen as a means of contributing to royal power and legitimacy over an increasingly complex governmental and religious system. The cult of the living king probably had it's greatest emphasis during the Amarna period, when <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn10.htm">Akhenaten</a> focused the state religion on the supreme power of the sun disk known as <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/aten.htm">Aten</a>. His religious program emphasized the indispensable role of the king as the sole intermediary between mankind and the life giving force of the sun disk. Direct worship of the Aten was actually limited to Akhenaten himself, while the king and his royal family were intended to be the object of worship by the population at large. There have been unearthed offering <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/Stele.htm">stelae</a> depicting the royal family belonging to private households, and such veneration of the king within domestic spheres represents an emphasis on kingly divinity not seen in other periods. However, after the Amarna period, royal cult buildings continued to be erected, such as that of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm">Ramesses II</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/abusimbel.htm">Abu Simbel</a>, that presented the royal cult as an inseparable part of the divine order.  The <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/lxtmpl.htm">Temple of Luxor</a> may be seen as the greatest surviving monument relating to the divine, living king. Though the building was begun during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a>, it underwent major additions and restorations during the reign of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenhotep3.htm">Amenhotep III</a> and later during the Ramessid period. This building can best be understood as a cult place of the living king and his divine association with the Theban triad. It was the focal point of the great <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/festival.htm">Opet festival</a>, when the image of Amun journeyed from his sanctuary at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karnak.htm">Karnak</a> and the living king celebrated his divine origins.  Of course, the worship of the divine king continued after his or her death, and from the very beginning of Egyptian history, the royal burials included a place where the dead ruler's spirit could receive offerings of food and drink. Early evidence for the development of the royal funerary cult occurs in the mortuary structures built by the Early Dynastic kings at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/abydos.htm">Abydos</a>. The burial places of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn1.htm">1st</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn2.htm">2nd Dynasty</a> kings have associated "valley enclosures" and there is evidence for long term presentation of offerings in a few of these.  <img height="224" alt="The Famous Step Pyramid" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult4.jpg" width="425" align="right" border="0" />The famous <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/stepyram.htm">Step Pyramid</a> of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/djoser.htm">Djoser</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/sakkara.htm">Saqqara</a> is the first known fully articulated funerary monument.  It includes various architectural elements that were designed to perpetuate the role of the king in the afterlife, including symbolic components of the royal palace, both above ground as well as below the pyramid where the king could rule for eternity. An integrated element of this architecture was a full offering cult, which was housed in a mortuary temple positioned on the north side of the pyramid.  As early as the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn4.htm">4th Dynasty</a>, kings erected for themselves a mortuary temple complex situated on the east side of their larger pyramids for their funerary cult. The colossal size and investment that went into these <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramids.htm">pyramid complexes</a> of the 4th Dynasty attests to the central importance of the pharaoh and his cult during this period of very early Egyptian history. In fact, considering the resources that went into these structures, much of the central government during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Old%20Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> must have been focused on the construction of these funerary complexes, and so the royal cult became a driving force in the political and economic of the Old Kingdom state.  Royal <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramids.htm">pyramid complexes</a> from the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn4.htm">4th</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn5.htm">5th</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn6.htm">6th dynasties</a> typically had two main cult buildings, including the mortuary temple on the pyramid's east side, and a valley temple at the edge of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag05012001/magf4a.htm">Nile River</a> floodplain. Like normal divine cults, the mortuary <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/temples.htm">temples</a> were manned by rotating teams of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/priests.htm">priests</a> in order to receive offerings and carry on the cult rituals. The valley temple, on the other hand, was adorned with scenes and statuary expressing the king's association with a wide variety of deities. Specifically, the valley temples seems to have been a structure used particularly to link the royal cult with other temples through periodic festivals and processions.  <img height="325" alt="The Pyramid Complex of Userkaf at Saqqara" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult3.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />Beginning with the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/userkafp.htm">pyramid of</a> <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/userkaf.htm">King Userkaf</a>, the first king of Egypt's <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn5.htm">5th Dynasty</a>, there was a false door in the mortuary temple that became the focal point for offerings to the king's spirit. However, beginning with the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/unasp.htm">pyramid of</a> <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/unas.htm">Unas</a>, the last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, a major source of information on royal funerary cults is the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidtext.htm">Pyramid Texts</a>, where were inscribed on the walls of the burial chambers. These texts provide a complex series of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/egyptmagic2.htm">magical spells</a> and religious statements intended to aid the king during the afterlife. They record embalming and burial rituals, as well as written versions of he offering formulae and of the offering ritual itself. During the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a>, the construction of pyramid complexes continued, but there were some basic theological shifts. For example, the first royal mortuary complex build during the eleventh dynasty, belonging to <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/mentuhotep2.htm">Montuhotep</a>, represents a departure from the complexes of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Old%20Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> in its emphasis on venerating the newly important state god of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/thebes.htm">Thebes</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm">Amun-Re</a>. Now, the king's legitimacy is provided through his or her association with that deity. Hence, the complex of Montuhotep focuses on the Thebian triad, consisting of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm">Amun</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/mut.htm">Mut</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/khonsu.htm">Khonsu</a>, but integrates a cult statue for the king.  <img height="222" alt="Depiction of the Beautiful Feast of the Valley" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult2.jpg" width="425" align="right" border="0" />The association between the the deified king and other gods was emphasized during this period, and later with the ritual known as the "<a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/festival.htm">Beautiful Festival of the Valley</a>", which was held annually. During this ceremony, the image (statue) of Amun was carried on his sacred bark to the west where he visited the king's funerary temple.  Later, during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a>, there were at times efforts to return to <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Old%20Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> cult practices, but there were nevertheless significant changes in conceptions of kingship that effectively restructured ideas on the nature of the king's role. Changes reflected in the design and decoration of royal cult buildings of the later Middle Kingdom and afterwards emphasis the veneration of the gods, with the king's cult appended and legitimized through his association with important gods. By late in the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn12.htm">12th Dynasty</a>, the term "mansion of millions of years" appears in some records referencing the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenemhet3hp.htm">funerary temple</a> of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenemhet3.htm">Amenemhet III</a> at Hawara. This term can be understood to apply to royal cult complexes where the king's cult was important, but nevertheless subordinate to the cult of major deities. <img height="275" alt="The Ramesseum on the West Bank at Thebes (Modern Luxor)" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult6.jpg" width="302" align="left" border="0" />This late <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn12.htm">12th Dynasty</a> practice ushered in the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a>, when the mansion of millions of years became the standard type of royal cult building. They were built on the West bank of the Nile at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/thebes.htm">Thebes</a>, and the best remaining examples are the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ramseum.htm">Ramesseum</a> of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm">Ramesses II</a> of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn19a.htm">19th Dynasty</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/habu.htm">Medinet Habu</a> built by <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ramessesiii.htm">Ramesses III</a>. who ruled during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn20a.htm">20th Dynasty</a>. These temple complexes were built some distance from the actual tombs of these rulers, who were buried further in on the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/westbank.htm">West Bank</a> in the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/kingtomb.htm">Valley of the Kings</a>.  Now, rather being independent, these temples were considered a part of the domain of Amun and so were connected administratively with the great <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karamun.htm">temple of Amun</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karnak.htm">Karnak</a>. They were surrounded by various precincts that included storerooms and housing for <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/priests.htm">priests</a> and officials who ran the economic foundations that sustained their cults.  These complexes, usually referred to as mortuary temples, were actually built and dedicated to <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm">Amun-Re</a>. The cult of the king was mediated by his or her divine association with that deity. The "<a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/festival.htm">Beautiful Festival of the Valley</a>" survived the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a> and continued as one of the most important ritual links during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a> between the royal funerary temples and the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karamun.htm">temple of Amun</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karnak.htm">Karnak</a>.  <img height="272" alt="The mortuary temple of Seti I at Abydos" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult7.jpg" width="325" align="right" border="0" />However, there were mansions of millions of years built elsewhere. One important example is that of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seti1.htm">Seti I</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/abydos.htm">Abydos</a>, where the royal cult was linked to one of Egypt's other principal gods, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/osiris.htm">Osiris</a>. The ancient Egyptians believed that Osiris was a deceased king of Egypt who was reborn to rule in the netherworld. Thus, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/setiabydos.htm">Seti I's temple</a> was also a monument dedicated to the institution of kingship itself as embodied in Osiris.  <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seti1.htm">Seti I</a>'s temple also illustrates another type of cult, which venerates the royal ancestors through cult activity mandated by the living king. Known as the Cult of the Royal Ancestors to modern <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/egyptologists.htm">Egyptologists</a>, this type of worship is known from as early as the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Old%20Kingdom">Old</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdoms</a>, but became particularly visible during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#New%20Kingdom">New Kingdom</a>. This type of cult activity could be established through patronage of existing temples, such as at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/karnak.htm">Karnak</a>, or the dedications of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/senusret3.htm">Senusret III</a> within the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/mentuhotept.htm">mortuary temple</a> of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/mentuhotep2.htm">Montuhotep</a>. However, it could also be articulated within a newly founded building such as that of Seti I at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/abydos.htm">Abydos</a>.  There was also a place for the royal cult within the temples of more normal gods. Kings from the earliest dynasties expressed their association with the gods by dedicating statuary and other religious objects, and in many of the large state temples, the cults of the gods and king became well linked. We find in the temples such as those of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/horus.htm">Horus</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hierakonpolis.htm">Heirakonpolis</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/montu.htm">Montu</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/medamud.htm">Medamud</a> considerable remains of royal dedicatory material, and there is no doubt that such temples also maintained a substantial royal cult. Those in such divine state temples, the king's cult may have been represented by his statue that received a portion of the daily offerings, in other instances and particularly in large state temples, entire ancillary buildings were built to link the royal cult with the divine god's cult. There are often referred to as ka-chapels, and can be found in such locations as <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tellbasta.htm">Bubastis</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/dendera.htm">Dendera</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hierakonpolis.htm">Heirakonpolis</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/abydos.htm">Abydos</a> and <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/niledeltaruins.htm">Tell el-Dab'a</a>.  Other structures within the gods' temples were intended to emphasize overtly the king's connection with the divine. A fine example of these structures is the birth houses known as <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/Mamissi.htm">mammisi</a>, which are decorated with scenes of the divine birth of the pharaoh and can be found at locations such as the Temple of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/hathor.htm">Hathor</a> at Dendera.  On a popular level, the king might receive a cult following in a more spontaneous fashion outside the framework of mortuary and normal state temples. In this regard, the royal cult displays many of the characteristics found in the worship of local gods. A good example of such a cult is that of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenhotep1.htm">Amenhotep I</a> at the community of the royal tomb builders at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/medina.htm">Deir el-Medina</a>. From the 18th <img height="425" alt="Pyramid Text" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/royalcult8.jpg" width="325" align="left" border="0" /> through the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn20a.htm">20th dynasty</a>, Amenhotep I was venerated for his role in establishing the workers village, where he became the patron deity. There, his cult was celebrated at a popular level during periodic festivals and processions. There were similar royal cults found at other locals, such as the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a>, where during the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Middle%20Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</a>, Egyptian miners  carried out a cult for <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/snefru.htm">Sneferu</a>. In the Second Cataract (rapids) region well south of modern <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/aswan/">Aswan</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/senusret3.htm">Senusret III</a> was also venerated as a local god.  Just as in the case of divine cults, the most important element of royal cult ritual was the daily offering. Basically, this entailed interaction between <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/priests.htm">priests</a> and the statue of the king which allowed it to be a suitable abode for the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag05012001/magf3.htm">ka</a> of the king. There are elements of the offering cult present as early as the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidtext.htm">Pyramid Texts</a>. However, the daily rituals are best documented in the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn19a.htm">19th Dynasty</a> temple of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seti1.htm">Seti I</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/abydos.htm">Abydos</a>, and in the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm">Ptolemaic period</a> temple of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/horus.htm">Horus</a> at <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/edfuc.htm">Edfu</a>. The daily routine involved a series of ritual acts accompanied by magical spells and offering formulae uttered by the priests, and included the statue's awakening, cleansing, anointing and dressing. Some parts of the the more involved morning ritual would be repeated several more times during the day, and in large royal cult temples, it was enacted for multiple images (statues) and subsidiary cults within the temple. Of course, as explained earlier, there were also periodic festivals and processions in which a royal cult statue was taken to nearby gods' temples, providing for interaction between the surrounding community and the royal cult. </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892708 Sun, 29 Mar 2009 19:41 EDT Early Dynastic Kings, Part II http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892707 By Marie Parsons <table bordercolor="#0066cc" cellspacing="0" bordercolordark="#0066cc" cellpadding="10" width="100%" align="left" bordercolorlight="#0066cc" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" width="100%" bgcolor="#fdffce" height="173">In the 2nd Dynasty, bronze vessels were made in Egypt for the first time. The entire ancient Near East had entered the Bronze Age. Six kings may have ruled in the 2nd dynasty, which lasted little more than 200 years. The names of the first three rulers, Hetepsekhemwy, meaning "Pleasing in Powers," Raneb, meaning "Ra is the lord," and Nynetjer, meaning "Godlike," were inscribed on the back of a statue of a priest named Hotepdief. This priest presumably was in the royal mortuary cult at Saqqara for these kings. Horus Hetepsekhemwy Hetepsekhemwy may have reigned for 38 years. Sealings with his name have been found near the 5th Dynasty pyramid of Unas at Saqqara, though the tomb attributed to him was empty. Sealings with his name have also been found in the offering chambers nearest the entrance of Qaâ€™aâ€™s tomb, perhaps indicating that Hetepsekhemwy oversaw the burial of his predecessor. In addition, an grave from Badari dated to the Early Dynastic period contained an alabaster vessel fragment inscribed with the royal serekh, the name of an estate, and the title of a mortuary priest. Horus Nebra Ranebâ€™s name should more appropriately be Nebra, "lord of the sun." He reigned for 39 years, according to Manetho. A granite stele from Abydos with Nebraâ€™s name in serekh. appears today in the Metropolitan Museum. Sealings with his name were also found with those of Hetepsekhemwy in the royal gallery tomb at Saqqara, so Nebra may have overseen the burial of his predecessor in turn. Nebraâ€™s name in serekh also appears cut on a rock near Armant in the western desert, close to an ancient trade route linking the Nile with its western oases. Manetho records that Nebra introduced the worship of the sacred goat of Mendes, of the sacred bull of Mnevis at Heliopolis, and of the sacred Apis bull at Memphis. However, it is now believed that since a stele dating from King Denâ€™s reign during the 1st Dynasty attests to his founding of the Apis cult, the worship of the Apis bull is dated earlier. Horus Nynetjer Nynetjer is the best attested king of the early 2nd Dynasty. He ruled for 47 years according to Manetho, and the Palermo Stone attests to at least 35 regnal years. The royal annals record events between his 6th and 26th regnal year, including various feasts of gods, including Sokar, a "running of the Apis bull" in the 9th regnal year, a military campaign in the 13th year, and in year 15, the birth of Khasekhemwy, the fifth and last king of the 2nd dynasty. The foundation of a chapel named Hr-rn is recorded for the 7th regnal year. With the exception of a ceremony in the 19th regnal year associated with the goddess Nekhbet of El-Kab, most of the festival activities of the king were closely connected with the Memphis region. That is to say, Nynetjer kept himself and his court closer to the Delta area and Lower Egypt. Perhaps this influenced the internal tensions toward the end of his reign. The Palermo Stone records that in the 13th regnal year, two towns were attacked. The name of one town has been translated to mean "northland," perhaps referring to Lower Egypt. Ephemeral rulers Some rather ephemeral rulers may have reigned after Nynetjer died. The royal names of Weneg and Nubnefer were found incised on stone vessels found in galleries beneath the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. Weneg, if he existed at all, may have ruled only in the north, as he is unattested outside of Saqqara. Since Unas leveled a good portion of Saqqara for his pyramid and causeway, Wenegâ€™s tomb and tombs of others may lie beneath that pyramid. Another ephemeral successor to Nynetjer was Sened. A block inscribed with the words nswt-bity Snd was found reused in the funerary temple of King Khafre at Giza, though it may be more correctly dated later than the 2nd Dynsty. But an inscription dated to the 4th <img height="458" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part II" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydyn3.jpg" width="175" align="left" border="0" />Dynasty from the tomb of a man named Shery, who may served in the royal mortuary cults, mentions King Sened, and indicates that his mortuary cult was celebrated at Saqqara and still current more than 100 years after his death. Sheryâ€™s titles suggest a connection between the cults of Sened and Peribsen. If this is true, perhaps Sened ruled in the north and Peribsen in the south, an initially amicable division. One last piece of evidence for the existence of Sened was the appearance of his name on the belt of a ate Period bronze statuette of a king. Horus Sekhemib/Set Peribsen The fourth king of the 2nd Dynasty came to the throne under the name of Sekhemib, and reigned for 17 years. During his reign the rivalry that seemed to be left merely simmering between north or Lower Egypt and the Delta, and south or Upper Egypt, reached the boiling point once again and a period of internal unrest began. It is thought possible that the basis for the story of the Contendings between Horus and Set is dated to this time, as the followers of each deity fought for control of the throne of unified Egypt. Whereas all the kings up to now had had a Horus name and used the Horus falcon on their royal serekhs, Sekhemib changed that. He not only changed his name from Horus Sekhemib, meaning "powerful in heart," to Set Peribsen, meaning "Hope of all hearts," but he also replaced the Horus falcon with the Set animal. His granite funerary stele from Abydos shows this serekh change. Peribsen chose to be buried back in Abydos rather than in Saqqara as had his recent predecessors, and though he is not attested outside Upper Egypt, as earlier mentioned, his mortuary cult was apparently celebrated in Saqqara. Horus-Set Khasekhemwy Khasekhemwy was the last king of the 2nd Dynasty. He may have been born with the name Khasekhem, but after putting down the various rebellions and once more uniting Egypt, he <img height="334" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part II" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydyn1.jpg" width="195" align="right" border="0" />changed his name to Khasekhemwy, meaning "The Two Powerful Ones Appear." He also included both the Horus falcon and the Set animal on his serekh and added the epithet nbwy -htp im=f, meaning "the two ladies are at peace in him," perhaps referring to the tutelary goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, once again united under his sole rule. A study of Nile levels recorded on the Palermo Stone indicate that the annual inundation had significantly dropped after the end of the 1st Dynasty. Perhaps <img height="303" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part II" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydyn2.jpg" width="175" align="left" border="0" />ecological as well as political factors influenced the repeated upsurge in conflict between Upper and Lower Egypt. An inscription on a stone vase reads, "The year of fighting the northern enemy within the city of Nekheb." The vulture goddess Nekhbet was the royal tutelary deity of this city, now known as el-Kab, which lay on the eastern bank of the Nile opposite the city of Nekhen or Hierakonpolis. Two seated statues of Khasekhemwy have inscribed around their bases images of contorted bodies, supposedly northern rebels, with a figure of 47,209 recorded as the number killed. Khasekhemwyâ€™s tomb at Abydos is unique, trapezoidal in shape, 230 feet in length and varying from some 56 feet wide <img height="170" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part II" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydyn4.jpg" width="275" align="right" border="0" />at one end to 33 feet at the other, with a stone burial chamber in the center. A royal scepter of gold and sard, and several small stone pots with gold-leaf lid coverings, were overlooked by tomb-robbers. About 1000 yards away from the tomb is the Shunet el-Zebib, a rectangular mud-brick structure 404 feet by 210 feet. Its walls stand up to 66 feet high and are about 16 feet thick. It contains a central burial structure of stone. Khasekhemwy married a northern princess named Nimaathap, who was called "king-bearing Mother" on a jar-sealing, and later on she was seen as the ancestress of the 3rd Dynasty. </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892707 Sun, 29 Mar 2009 19:40 EDT Early Dynastic Kings, Part I http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892706 By Marie Parsons <table bordercolor="#0066cc" cellspacing="0" bordercolordark="#0066cc" cellpadding="10" width="100%" align="left" bordercolorlight="#0066cc" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" width="100%" bgcolor="#fdffce" height="173"><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/menes.htm">Aha</a>, probably the son of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/narmer.htm">Narmer </a>and his queen Nithotep, is thought to be the first king of the 1st Dynasty. A tomb at Abydos is attributed to him. It is the largest in the northwestern part of the cemetery, and another tomb close by contained labels with the name Berner-Ib, or "Sweetheart," possibly his queen. Horus Djer Djer, whose name may have meant "Horus who Succors," is said to have reigned for 57 years. Nine years from his reign are recorded on the main Cairo fragment of the royal annals, describing the royal progress, or the "following of Horus," the fashioning and dedication of cult statues, and an expedition to Western Asia. These were the first records of military expeditions outside of the Two Lands. Forces were sent east into Sinai and perhaps beyond. The annals refer to one regnal year being called "The Year of Smiting the Land of the Stjt", a word later referring perhaps to Syria-Palestine. The sciences may have flourished at this time, because Djer was remembered later on as a great physician. Manetho claims that Djer wrote on anatomy and treatment of diseases in circulation 3,000 years after his death. One of his prescriptions was for hair strengthening. Djerâ€™s tomb lies at Umm el-Quab, at Abydos. It was a subterranean brick structure containing a wooden inner chamber, much more elaborate than those of his predecessors Aha and Narmer and other kings from Dynasty 0 so far known. Djerâ€™s burial area also includes 300 retainer graves, more than do the earlier ones. Fragments of at least a dozen vessels of Syro-Palestinian origin were found in the tomb, confirming trade contacts between Egypt and its neighbors. Although the tomb had been robbed, Flinders Petrie discovered an arm near the entrance, still wearing four bracelets. Three of these were composed of gold, amethyst, turquoise and lapis beads, the fourth consisting of 13 gold and 14 turquoise alternating plaques, with a pair of gold cone end pieces. The arm has been lost, but the bracelets are now in the Cairo Museum. Ivory and wood labels are best direct evidence for the existence of Djer, since writing was still in its early stages. One example is an ivory label found at Saqqara. A Horus-falcon surmounts the serekh containing the kingâ€™s name. Small figures advance to the serekh carrying offerings, while a mummy, or perhaps a statue, follows. Others carry a fish, a bird and a great spear to the falcon. At the other end of the label, two figures are shown, one whose arms appear to be drawn back or pinioned, and another apparently plunging a knife into the first. The figure wielding the knife also holds some sort of vessel, perhaps to catch the flowing blood. Another ivory label includes characters for two ships, the sign for "town" and Djerâ€™s name in the serekh. The label may record a visit to the Delta cities of Buto and to Sais. Merytneith, or Merneith <img height="295" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part I" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydynb3.jpg" width="120" align="left" border="0" />Around this time MerytNeith, or Merneith, meaning "Beloved of Neith," seems to have taken the throne, either to rule alone after Djer, or perhaps after his successor Djet, as regent for her son Den, if she was Djetâ€™s wife. On a clay seal impression the names of the early kings from Narmer to Den are inscribed, and MerytNeith is given the title of "Kingâ€™s Mother." At this time the Queens, or more properly, Great wives, since there is no word for "queen" in the Egyptian language, bore the titles "She who unites the Two Lands" and "She who sees Horus and Set." The inclusion of the name Neith, or Nit, goddess of Sais in the Delta, would seem to indicate that MerytNeith at least had strong northern connections. A later necropolis seal belonging to Qaa, last king of the first dynasty, omitted MerNeithâ€™s name from the list of kings. MerytNeith was buried at Abydos and the building associated her reign at Saqqara, with 41 subsidiary or servant graves, indicates the pomp and solemnity generally accorded to the King. <img height="317" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part I" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydynb1.jpg" width="225" align="right" border="0" />Horus Djet King Djet, the Horus Cobra, used the name sign of the serpent. His stela is now in the Louvre, and shows his name sign shows the rearing serpent, suspended in the sky above fortified battlements. Djet may have had a short reign, less than 20 years. All that is known about him was that an expedition made its way to the Red Sea and perhaps beyond. His tomb lies at Abydos. The building at Saqqara formerly attributed to his reign is now thought to be that of a noble named Sekhem-kha, whose sealings were found in the debris. The room was originally paneled in wood, inlaid with strips of gold plating. The building itself was surrounded by a low platform on which were mounted some 300 bullsâ€™ heads modeled in clay with the actual horns. The same display is made around the tomb of Queen Her-Neith, perhaps Djerâ€™s consort who was buried after the reign of King Djet. Horus Den Djet was followed on the throne by Den, Horus who Strikes, also called Udimu. Den probably had a long reign, since he possibly celebrated not one but at least two <img height="200" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part I" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydynb2.jpg" width="250" align="left" border="0" />Sed-festivals or jubilees. His chancellor was Hemaka, known from the discovery of his tomb at Saqqara. Hemakaâ€™s tomb was particularly rich, yielding artifacts such as inlaid gaming discs and a wooden box containing the oldest papyrus to survive from Egypt. Denâ€™s <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/titles.htm">throne name</a>, or nisu-bity (literally meaning "the sedge and the bee,") was Semti. This was the first time this title was used. For the first time the Double Crown, that is, the Red and White Crowns together, is shown being worn by the king. Like Djer, Den too was thought of as a physician, and a prescription recorded in the Ebers medical papyrus is attributed to him. One of the medical studies thought to date from this time had to do with the treatment of fractures. The name Smti was written with the sign for high desert or foreign land, perhaps reflecting his preoccupation with the northeast frontier. Den apparently campaigned to the East. Five labels record military activity in southern Palestine, though perhaps at least some of these expeditions may have been symbolic. The Palermo Stone records that in Year x+2 of his reign Den smote the Iwnw, a word usually indicating the nomads of the eastern or western deserts. Eight years later the annals record the destruction of a possibly Asiatic locality named Wt-k3. Another innovation of this reign was the use of stone in tomb-making, as his tomb possessed a granite pavement, and granite blocks supported the wooden roof. Horus Anedjib After Den came Enezib, or Anedjib, "Safe is his heart," who according to the Saqqara king list was named the first king of united Egypt. There may have been a dynastic struggle between north and south (an event which seems to have happened on and off during the Early Dynastic period ever since Narmer "unified" Egypt. Anedjib adopted the "<a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/titles.htm">Two Lords</a>" title, anticipating Khasekhemwy in the 2nd Dynasty. He may have had a long reign, since two stone vessel fragments from Saqqara and Abydos make reference to a Sed festival. For all that, little is known of this king. Though his own tomb was modest compared to those of Den and Djet, Anedjib installed sixty-four servants in subsidiary graves. But he was quite possibly overthrown, his name on stone vases erased, probably by his successor Semerkhet. Horus Semerkhet <img height="198" alt="Early Dynastic Kings, Part I" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/earlydynb4.jpg" width="200" align="right" border="0" />Manetho records that in the reign of King Semerkhet, meaning "Thoughtful Friend," a great calamity came to Egypt. It has been suggested that he was a usurper with a dubious title to the kingship, though he was the first to use the "<a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/titles.htm">Two Ladies</a>" or nbty name, of Irynetjer. His tomb at Abydos contained a number of stone vessels originally inscribed with the name of Anedjib, that were re-inscribed for Semerkhet. However, stone vessels from Djoserâ€™s Step Pyramid in the 3rd Dynasty are inscribed with the kingly sequence of Den-Anedjib-Semerkhet-Qaa; that is, Semerkhetâ€™s name was not omitted, as was Merneithâ€™s name later on, for example (or Hatshepsutâ€™s as a New Kingdom example.) Semerkhet reigned for only nine years. Though the royal annals preserved a complete record of his reign, the events listed are nothing more than the biennial royal progress (if that is the correct interpretation of the "following of Horus," of ritual "appearances of the king," and of dedicating divine images. Trade continued between the Near East and Egypt, evidenced from fragments from 10 or 11 imported Syro-Palestinian vessels found in Semerkhetâ€™s tomb, and from a grave dated to the same period, found at Abusir, in the form of a painted, handled flask typical of Early Bronze Age vessels also from Syro-Palestine. Horus Qaâ€™a Qaâ€™a, meaning "His Arm is Raised," succeeded Semerkhet, and was the last king of this 1st dynasty and reigned for 26 years. Qaa built the last tomb and funerary enclosure at Abydos until the last two kings of the 2nd Dynasty returned to build their own tombs there. Several large mastabas at North Saqqara are dated to his reign, and a fragment of a siltstone bowl from Saqqara which mentions the kingâ€™s second Sed-festival, suggesting Qaaâ€™s reign may have been a long one. Year labels discovered at his tomb record events from the royal progress to the collection of timber, from the foundation of a religious building to the celebration of cultic festivals, such as the running of the Apis bull and the festival of Sokar. A rock-cut inscription near the city of el-Kab in Upper Egypt shows Qaaâ€™s serekh facin a figure of the regnal goddess Nekhbet.   </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1892706 Sun, 29 Mar 2009 19:37 EDT The Sinai Beaches http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1877958 <center></center><center> <table bordercolor="#0066cc" cellspacing="0" bordercolordark="#0066cc" cellpadding="10" width="100%" align="left" bordercolorlight="#0066cc" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="100%" bgcolor="#fdffce"><center></center> <img height="274" alt="An areal view of Na'ama Bay at Sharm el-Sheikh on Egypt's Sinai" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation4-15.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />Many people today still think of Egypt as a desert country, which it is to a large extent. But between its <a href="http://touregypt.net/alex.htm">mainland Mediterranean coast</a>, its long<a href="http://touregypt.net/redsea.htm"> mainland Red Sea coast</a> and the <a href="http://touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a>, it has an impressive amount of beach area. In fact, despite Egypt's aggressive construction of new beach resorts, the Sinai's western coast remains almost completely undeveloped. However, a notable exception is <a href="http://touregypt.net/rassudrtop.htm">Ras Sidr</a>, which is a very nice beach better known to Egyptians than foreign travelers. It lies about sixty kilometers south of the Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel at the gulf of Suez's northern end.  The eastern coastline and the southern tip of the <a href="http://touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a> have a number of beach resort regions, though by far the most developed region is the region in and around <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>. At the other end of the Gulf of Aqaba to the north, <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> has also seen significant development, including an attempt to reproduce the success of <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> on Egypt's <a href="http://touregypt.net/redsea.htm">mainland Red Sea coast</a> in a project called Taba Heights. Between Taba and Sharm el-Sheikh, the major resorts are found at <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a> and <a href="http://touregypt.net/dahabtop.htm">Dahab</a>, but all along the eastern coastline of the Sinai are a number of more primitive, though frequently popular, camp areas intermingled with some better resort compounds. <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a> is a very different resort community for Egypt, more like one might find in Europe, or even the US. Many of the main resorts are connected by a "boardwalk", which allows one to walk along a path bordered by shops, restaurants, clubs and hotels. There is excitement in the air here, particularly in the evenings when various entertainment cascades down <img height="272" alt="Sharm el-Sheikh in the evening" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation12.jpg" width="425" align="right" border="0" />the walk, and it seems like the crowds walking along speak in dozens of different languages.  The main beach areas at <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a> itself comprise two adjacent bays, known as Na'ama Bay and Sharm al-Maya. Of these, Na'ama Bay is the oldest development and the location of the boardwalk. Here, hotels are just separated from the beach by the boardwalk, with some facilities such as beach front restaurants and bars built on the beach itself. Sharm al-Maya is less developed with slightly more isolated beach resorts.  <img height="284" alt="Relaxing on the beach at Sharm el-Sheikh" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation10.jpg" width="400" align="left" border="0" />The resort community of <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>, usually simply referred to as Sharm, is one of the two main beach havens in Egypt, the other being the vicinity in and around <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> on the mainland coast. While Sharm has a completely different flavor than Hurghada, it too receives most of its visitors by European charters. Even though there have been some very fine hotels built at Hurghada, and particularly at <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> just north of Hurghada (and in other areas around Hughada), Sharm el-Sheikh has always been considered the most upscale of the two resort areas. In fact, one will find very few hotels other than four or five stars in Sharm el-Sheikh, while those of Hurghada are more varied.  <img height="375" alt="The professional level golf course at the Movenpick Jolie Ville at Sharm el-Sheikh" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation4-1.jpg" width="336" align="right" border="0" />However, if one wants it all, from the Hard Rock Cafe to the Four Seasons Hotel, from beautiful reefs and crystal waters to almost a Las Vegas style atmosphere, then <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a> has to be the Egyptian beach resort of choice. It is a world class spot to launch scuba diving expeditions, with crystal clear waters and many nearby dive sites.  While <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> may still receive more beach tourists than any other region in Egypt, Sharm is famous throughout the world as the "City of Peace", a very secure area where, not infrequently, world leaders, attending summits,  mix with the beach vacationers, and one need not simply be limited to beach activities and world class scuba diving. <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a> hosted the first ever official European professional golf tournament at the Movenpick Jolie Ville Course, and one may also visit what is, perhaps, the most famous of Egypt's ancient, and still active, monasteries known as <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/Catherines.htm">St. Catherine's</a> at the foot of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/mountmoses.htm">Mount Sinai</a>. For nature lovers, there is also <a href="http://touregypt.net/parks/rasmoh.htm">Ras Mohammed</a>, Egypt's best known and first National Park just south of Sharm.  <img height="286" alt="One of the beaches at Dahab" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation17.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />There is also, thirty-five miles north of Sharm, the <a href="http://touregypt.net/parks/nabq.htm">Nabq Protectorate</a>, the largest coastal park on the Gulf of Aqaba, which includes the world's most northerly mangrove forest.  Further up the eastern coast of the <a href="http://touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a>, about 85 kilometers north of Sharm, is <a href="http://touregypt.net/dahabtop.htm">Dahab</a>. At one time, Dahab had a bit of a reputation as sort of a hippie haven, which time has not completely erased, though it now has grown up and matured into more of a traditional beach resort. There are still beach camps here, but there are now also some good hotels, Italian restaurants and other trappings of tourism. There is a mixed variety of accommodations along a paved beachfront path  <img height="292" alt="A view of the beach at Nuweiba at sunset" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations4-1.jpg" width="325" align="right" border="0" />Considerably further up the coast, after passing through the <a href="http://touregypt.net/parks/abugalum.htm">Ras Abu Gallum Protectorate</a>, is <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a>, really one of our favorite small beach communities. The atmosphere at Nuweiba is really laid back and completely relaxing. It is, perhaps, not unlike some individual camps along the beaches at certain spots, but at the same time, does provide a little more in the way of accommodations and amenities, though only enough to be utterly comfortable. Here, Bedouin boys lead their camels out in the surf to use as diving platforms, while beach goers eat fish just caught by the same people who cook it up and serve their patrons.  <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a> is divided into three parts. To the south is the port with its bus station, banks and the one really upscale hotel, the Hilton Coral Resort. About eight kilometers south of the port is the <img height="325" alt="The Habiba is a nice, quiet little resort at Nuwieba, and very friendly" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations4-2.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />city center, which is spread out but contains a small selection of tourists shops, a few restaurants and a small bazaar. Still a bit further north is Tarabin, with a number of small hotels and camp-like operations.  Further up the coast between <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a> and <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> are a number of small beach camps, some of which, while having fairly primitive accommodations and amenities, nevertheless front exotic and beautiful beaches with stunning blue water. These include, beginning from the south, Maagana beach, Ras Shaitan and Mahash. Maagana Beach is located about eight kilometers north of Tarabeen (the northernmost part of <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a>). Ras Shaitan is another two <img height="206" alt="The Tango Beach resort at Basata" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation4-5.jpg" width="325" align="right" border="0" />kilometers north of Maagana. Of these beaches, Mahash, about twenty kilometers north of Nuweiba is by far the most developed, though still a beach camp for the most part. Here, <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/basata.htm">Basata</a> is an eco-minded camp with about 18 huts and a common kitchen, but there is also now the Tango Beach Resort, a four star hotel with 64 rooms. Mahash is about twenty kilometers north of Nuweiba. There are also several hotels, such as the three star Awaki Beach hotel, and Club Aquasun, which is a 72 room domed hotel with somewhat more amenities. Finally, a bit further north, about 35 kilometers south of <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> is Bir Sweir, which is also a small hut style camp.  <img height="209" alt="A view of a section of Taba Heights" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations4-4.jpg" width="310" align="left" border="0" />Just prior to the actual city of <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a>, some seventeen kilometers to the south, is the massive new Taba Heights development. This is a resort community being built by the same people who put together <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a>, in much the same way. There is already a Hyatt Regency, a Marriott and a Sofitel along with a golf course, and there will very soon be a Three Corners El Wekala, if it is not now open. The Taba Heights Inter-Continental is expected to open in 2005, and there will be at least several other major hotels opening in the near future. Like El-Gouna, this resort center is being planned with all of the amenities of El-Gouna, including many water sports facilities including diving shops, as well as a casino.  <img height="313" alt="Map of Taba Heights" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations4-13.jpg" width="425" align="right" border="0" />In between Taba Heights and <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> itself is another small harbor named the Fjod, with no real accommodations but a small restaurant and beach area. There is also a small hotel called the Salah ad-Din Hotel just a bit further on adjacent to <a href="http://touregypt.net/Geziret_Faraun.htm">Pharaoh's Island</a>, just before Taba.  <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> itself is a few hundred meters of beach, and only one real luxury hotel, the Taba Hilton which was recently heavily damaged by a bomb attack. Taba sits on the Egyptian-Israel border. In fact, all that separates the Israeli beach resort of Eilat from Egypt's Taba is the border.  The hotel is actually a managed property of Hilton Hotels and not owned by them. In a recent interview, Tour Egypt was advised that the owner does intend to repair the facility, though no timetable has been provided for such repairs. However, we were advised that the damage to the hotel may not have been as severe as originally thought, and that the repairs will probably take <img height="209" alt="The Marriott at Taba Heights" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations4-14.jpg" width="310" align="left" border="0" />place as soon as possible.  The <a href="http://touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a> is really a wonderful place to visit, with majestic mountains and scenery like nowhere else on earth.  An Analysis of the Recent Events in and Around Taba (Mid-October, 2004) As the Jerusalem Post noted in a recent article, "Israelis consider Taba, just across the Egyptian border with Israel, part of their own backyard - partly because Israel controlled the tiny enclave for 22 years, and Israelis built the hotel that was wrecked by an explosion. Unfortunately, <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a>, caters to many Jewish citizens, and it was almost certainly them, and not tourists in general that were targeted in the Taba attack. Nevertheless, the Egyptian government knows that, even though Taba is relatively isolated from most other beach areas in the <a href="http://touregypt.net/sinai.htm">Sinai</a>, such an attack hurts tourism all over Egypt, and they will do everything in their power to protect the resort, as well as others, from any future problems. In fact, security in the region has already been stepped up considerably. The location of the bombings are of some significance. The Taba Hilton sits right on the Egypt-Israel border, basically within meters of the physical crossing. This was the largest of the blasts. The second one occurred at Ras Shaitan, a fairly undeveloped beach area on the northern side of a rocky spur that juts out into the Gulf of Aqaba. The third explosion took place, not at <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a> as reported by almost all news sources, but about ten kilometers north of the town. In fact, one of these explosions did not cause much damage, we understand, because the vehicle was prevented from reaching its destination by Egyptian Tourist police.  One interesting and relevant fact about these events is that places such as Taba Heights was not affected, probably because larger resorts have additional security, but perhaps also because there was less of a Jewish presence there.  The bombings at and near <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> were the first such incident that has occurred in Egypt in some years now and a pity according to just about everyone's perspective. The incident killed and injured Muslims and Jews alike. Egypt considers itself a country of peace, and rightly so. Though an American, I have many friends in Egypt, and while I am not naive enough to think that there are not bad people everywhere, in every country and of ever religious persuasion, there are no more moderate, considerate and caring people than Egyptians. The Taba bombing was an act that alienated those responsible from everyone, crossing both borders and religions. Men such as those who performed this vicious act are always misguided, but these particular men were even more so.  And while such incidents can happen in any corner of the world, obviously including the US, the Egyptian government is dedicated, above all else, to protecting its tourists. There is no doubt about that, because tourism provides essential hard revenue to both the Egyptian government and the people of Egypt, many of whom directly or indirectly support their families through the tourist industry.  In the final analysis, <a href="http://touregypt.net/tabatop.htm">Taba</a> is not a major resort area for Egypt, really having less facilities, for example, than even <a href="http://touregypt.net/noweibatop.htm">Nuweiba</a> or <a href="http://touregypt.net/dahabtop.htm">Dahab</a>. It is a nice area and, of course, we can expect that Taba Heights some distance to the south, but not to really be confused with Taba itself, will be a very major and secure facility, as is El Gouna.  </td> </tr> </tbody> </table></center> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1877958 Thu, 05 Feb 2009 04:43 EDT Egypt's Mainland Gulf of Suez and Red Sea Coast http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1877956 <center></center><center> <table bordercolor="#0066cc" cellspacing="0" bordercolordark="#0066cc" cellpadding="10" width="100%" align="left" bordercolorlight="#0066cc" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="100%" bgcolor="#fdffce"><center></center> <img height="180" alt="The Resort Village of El Gouna, an upscale community on Egypt's Mainland Red Sea Coast" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-3.jpg" width="550" border="0" /> The Resort Village of El Gouna, an upscale community on Egypt's Mainland Red Sea Coast The mainland <a href="http://touregypt.net/redsea.htm">Egyptian coastline along the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea</a> is one continuous stretch of mostly beaches, but very different in many ways. Obviously, there are differences in the water within a confined gulf as opposed to the open Red Sea, but there are considerable differences in the facilities and some difference in the types of activities available. We can actually define three of the most popular regions as <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a> at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez, the Region around <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> and <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> just about where the Gulf of Suez opens up into the Red Sea, and <a href="http://touregypt.net/marsaalamtop.htm">Marsa Alam</a>, which is becoming very popular considerably south of <img height="258" alt="A ship passing by Ain Sukhna that has recently come through the Suez Canal" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ainsoukhna10.jpg" width="400" align="left" border="0" />Hurghada, but still some distance from the southern Egyptian border. However, all sorts of resorts, camps and other facilities, some of which are very important, can be found all along the coast, including such places as <a href="http://touregypt.net/safagatop.htm">Safaga</a> and <a href="http://touregypt.net/quseirtop.htm">Quseir</a>. What is making the upper Red Sea coast so popular is its proximity to Greater <a href="http://touregypt.net/cairo/">Cairo</a>, one of the largest, if not the largest, cities in the world. The region of coastline referred to as <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a> is, simply put, the closest beach area to this city, and a new highway will soon make it even more convenient. Like the new resorts along the north coast, many of the facilities along the coast at Ain Sukhna are residential compounds that mostly cater to Egyptian beach goers. Some of them do have hotels, though even many of these are more suitable to Egyptians. Nevertheless, this region has some specific advantages for foreigners as well, and so we can expect to see a growing trend of nice hotels that also cater to tourists.  <img height="225" alt="A small section of the large beach at Stella di Mare" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ainsoukhna13.jpg" width="525" border="0" /> A small section of the large beach at Stella di Mare along the Ain Sukhna area Specifically, while <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a> is convenient for the people of <a href="http://touregypt.net/cairo/">Cairo</a>, so too is it convenient for tourists. Cairo is, for almost all visitors to Egypt taking a classical tour, the first and last stop on <img height="306" alt="A view of the beach at Stella di Mare" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/live107.jpg" width="400" align="right" border="0" />their itinerary. Traditionally, if they wished to include a stop on the Red Sea, that segment would be made from Luxor, usually traveling either by bus to <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, or by air to <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>. While the airplane ride to Sharm el-Sheikh is not a long one, the bus trip to Hurghada takes much longer than one to Ain Sukhna. Furthermore, there is not much to really see in the way of antiquities around Hurghada, though like elsewhere in Egypt, there seems to always be a few sites that can be visited. And while classical tourists who visit Sharm el-Sheikh frequently take in <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/Catherines.htm">St. Catherine's Monastery</a>, stopping along the way at the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/FEIRAN.htm">Seven Girls Monastery (Convent)</a> at Wadi Firan, from Ain Sukhna, one can just about as easily visit the newly renovated and very famous Eastern Desert monasteries of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/antony.htm">St. Anthony</a> and <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/stpaul.htm">St. Paul</a>. And, of course, there is the <a href="http://touregypt.net/suezcanal.htm">Suez Canal</a>, which is only just north of Ain Sukhna and so close, in fact, that one can frequently see the large ships that have just come through the canal from many of the Ain Sukhna resorts. While most of the resorts at <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a> attract Egyptian tourists, there are at least several that are finding more and more favor among foreign tourists. One of our favorite is <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/live10.htm">Stella di Mare</a>, a large resort compound with both family vacation units and two nice hotels, including the five star <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/swissinnstella.htm">Swiss Inn</a> and the four star <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/planhotel.htm">PlanHotel</a>, both of which are surprisingly reasonable in price. They <img height="287" alt="The lobby of the PlanHotel at Stella di Mare on the Red Sea" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/planhotel4.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" /> offer a host of activities and services, including one of the finest spas in North Africa. This resort has traditionally attracted a large contingency of upper class Italian tourists and will doubtless see many other foreign tourists as it becomes better known.  The resorts that begin at <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a> today stretch along the beach all the way to <a href="http://touregypt.net/zafarana.htm">Zafarana</a>, which is a small village most notable as a staging point for visiting the monasteries of the Eastern Desert. After Zafarana, there is not much until one reaches the region around <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>.  The region around <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> (known in Egypt as Ghardaga), including the more upscale village of <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> just to the north, and the fine resorts in the resort compound of Soma Bay to the <img height="244" alt="Part of the main street along Hurghada's downtown area" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-4.jpg" width="370" align="right" border="0" /> south, is by far the most popular tourist beach area along Egypt's mainland coast, particularly among foreign tourists. Unlike many of the compound resorts along all of Egypt's coasts, Hurghada is a true, though small city with all the trappings and entertainment facilities one might expect of a beach resort anywhere in the world. More than 35,000 people now live in Hurghada, and there are over 100 resorts and hotels, making it Egypt's most popular resort town. Specifically, one need not be limited to only the entertainment provided by a specific resort. Within Hurghada, there are any number of bars and restaurants, shops, including small malls and other tourist facilities. It also clearly has a small boat manufacturing industry. <img height="278" alt="A Hurghada beach at sunrise" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation14.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />There are really several types of tourist accommodations at <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, each of which appeal to different types of tourists. In the town itself are hotels, some with and some without beachfronts, which have a tendency to attract more young people and those on limited budgets. During specific times of the year, there are many Eastern Europeans that fill up these hotels, along with some of the other resorts at Hurghada. These downtown hotels are frequently less expensive than the outlying resort, are of course convenient to the entertainment district, but offer somewhat less exclusive beaches.  <img height="274" alt="The Grand Resort at Hurghada on Egypt's Red Sea Coast" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-2.jpg" width="400" align="right" border="0" />Like elsewhere, there are also resort compounds at <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> that are more exclusive and which offer complete facilities including bars, restaurants, entertainment and all sorts of activities. Many of these provide all inclusive beach vacations, where meals, bars and the various activities are included in the price of the hotel room. And while Hurghada has traditionally been considered the more affordable beach area (as opposed to <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>), today, one can find a range of resort compounds from very affordable to very exclusive. One problem is that many of these types of resorts are somewhat isolated from the city itself. A taxi or other transportation is required for a trip into town.  Like <a href="http://touregypt.net/sharm/">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>, <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> is a main destination of European charters, though traditionally it has tended to attract a somewhat younger, as well as less affluent beach goer. Hence, one should realize that many of the compounds will predominately be filled with those of a specific nationality.  Of course, as one of the primary beach destinations for foreign vacationers, there are hardly any activities found elsewhere in the world's beach resorts that cannot be found at <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, with the possible exception of surfing. Along with jet skiing, skiing, parasailing, windsurfing, snorkeling, sailing and swimming, it is also one of the main scuba diving hubs for the Red Sea.  <img height="158" alt="Boats docking at the upscale beach resort village of El Gouna" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-7.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" />To the north of <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> is very different. It must be one of the most orderly and planned beach towns in Egypt, and while it offers a range of hotel accommodations, it is mostly considered to be very upscale. As a planned resort village, most of the hotels are convenient to the downtown region, where there are independent bars and restaurants. And like Hurghada, there is also every imaginable beach activity, but there is also a fine golf course.  <img height="293" alt="Looking on to the Red Sea over the gardens of the Movenpick Hotel at El Gouna on Egypt's Red Sea Coast" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-1.jpg" width="400" align="right" border="0" />In reality, <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> is not unlike a beach resort compound, only with many more hotels and a wide range of facilities. It is a very secure area which is also popular among upper class Egyptians. In fact, it is considered a playground for Egypt's rich and famous, and often hosts concerts and sporting events. Like other resort compounds, there are also privately owned villas. Unlike many other resort compounds, there is a complete infrastructure, including an airport, a marina, a good hospital and even a fine school. They even have their own TV and radio station. All said, El-Gouna is one of Egypt's classiest beach destinations. South of <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> is a resort strip with hotels and resorts crammed along a stretch of beach for at least 20 kilometers. About halfway between Hurghada and <a href="http://touregypt.net/safagatop.htm">Safaga</a> is a small, low key beach <img height="387" alt="A map of Egypt's Mainland Red Sea and Gulf of Suez Coast" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation3-map.jpg" width="375" align="left" border="0" /> resort used mainly by divers, though those with their own tent can also camp. This is Sharm al-Naga, and just a bit further south is Soma Bay which, in recent years, has probably become known for its golf course more than its fine beaches. It is a common getaway for <a href="http://touregypt.net/cairo/">Cairo</a>'s dedicated golfers, but at the same time, the Sheraton here has to be one of that chain's most beautiful hotels in Egypt. Soma Bay is really one of Egypt's early beach resort compounds, which includes private villas along with a new  Hyatt hotel. Other hotels include the Robinson and as of now, a La Residence, though other hotels are expected to be built here. Like at <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/live10.htm">Stella di Mare</a> further up the coast, there is also a Thalasso Spa here as well.  Soma Bay offers all the normal activities, including scuba diving, and also has its own small marina. Significantly, both <a href="http://touregypt.net/elgounatop.htm">El-Gouna</a> and Soma Bay are close enough to <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a> to allow for a quick trip into town for some shopping and additional entertainment opportunities in the evening. In many ways, these areas make up a specific zone along the mainland coast of Egypt's Red Sea, as one the countries premier beach fronts. From this area south along the coast there are a number of "camps", usually with only rudimentary accommodations, which sometimes offer quaint beach vacations or are at times <img height="317" alt="The Swimming bool and beach at the Soma Bay Sheraton" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-6.jpg" width="275" align="right" border="0" /> dedicated to scuba divers, mixed in with some very specific larger resorts areas, the most notable of which is <a href="http://touregypt.net/marsaalamtop.htm">Marsa Alam</a>. The first vacation destination of any size south of Soma Bay is <a href="http://touregypt.net/safagatop.htm">Safaga</a>, which is more of a port than anything else, though it attracts a substantial number of scuba divers. Safaga does have some nice accommodations, though not particularly world class, including one of the few Holiday Inns in Egypt. While many of the visitors to Safaga are mostly interested in scuba diving, it is an excellent region for windsurfing and was, in fact, the venue for the 1993 World Windsurfing Championships. South of <a href="http://touregypt.net/safagatop.htm">Safaga</a>, the next notable city is <a href="http://touregypt.net/quseirtop.htm">Al-Quseir</a>, which has become more and more of a beach resort village, mostly specializing in scuba diving, but at the same time, has considerable historic significance. Located about 140 kilometers south of <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, during ancient times it was known as "White Harbor", and it was from here that <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn05.htm">Queen Hatshepsut's</a> expeditions to <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/punt.htm">Punt</a> set out for the Red Sea segment of their journey. The old port town of Myos Hormos, a <img height="327" alt="Dome buildings and the beach at Al-Quseir" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/quseir4.jpg" width="325" align="left" border="0" /> Ptolemaic and Roman port engaged in trade with India is also here, about eight miles north adjacent to the Movenpick Hotel.  <a href="http://touregypt.net/quseirtop.htm">Al-Quseir</a>, perhaps because of it's history and the fact that it is not a modern invention of tourism, has a certain charm that is not present in many of Egypt's other Red Sea towns. It is dominated by an Ottoman fortress and old coral-block buildings with wooden balconies that surround the waterfront in the center of town. Here, the beaches are a bit less crowded than they are further north. Again, while one may find some small tourist camps south of <a href="http://touregypt.net/quseirtop.htm">Al-Quseir</a>, mostly completely dedicated to scuba diving, the next major tourist destination on the mainland Red Sea, and by far the most thriving one south of <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, is <a href="http://touregypt.net/marsaalamtop.htm">Marsa Alam</a>. Many of Egypt's Red Sea Coast vacations areas were only small fishing villages only a few years ago, and though <img height="223" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacation2-20.jpg" width="425" align="right" border="0" /> Marsa Alam remained only a quaint tourist destination, only very recently it has taken off as an exceptional destination, probably due to its new airport.  <a href="http://touregypt.net/marsaalamtop.htm"> Marsa Alam</a> does have an ancient history. During the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm">Greco</a>-<a href="http://www.touregypt.net/ehistory.htm#Roman%20Period">Roman Period</a>, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ptolemy2.htm">Ptolemy II</a> built a road leading from <a href="http://touregypt.net/edfuc.htm">Edfu</a> to this village, which followed a more ancient route. Inland gold and emerald mines were exploited during Egypt's distant past. Today, the airport is receiving chartered flights directly from Europe, and there are also an increasing number of divers who come here to avoid the crowds further north. This has all resulted in a number of tourist resorts being built both to the north and south of the village. <img height="225" alt="Diving just off shore at Marsa Alam" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/marsaalam11.jpg" width="425" align="left" border="0" /> Isolated though it may be on Egypt's southern coastline, its warm climate, particularly during the winter months, will likely see this area flourish in future years. Still further south is Shams Alam, which in recent years has been the southernmost tourist outpost along the Red Sea. This is really a very small village, with rudimentary but very acceptable accommodations and a nice beach. It is almost exclusively the domain of scuba divers looking to visit some of Egypt's less-frequented southern reefs.  <img height="205" alt="The Shams Alam Beach Resort and Wadi Gemal Diving Center" src="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/beachvacations3-5.jpg" width="245" align="right" border="0" />While Egypt's mainland Red Sea coast extends further south, not only are there no real accommodations, a special permit is needed to visit these areas mostly because of military installations.  So to a large extent, the eastern mainland coast of Egypt can be broken down into three parts. These include the upper region  within the the Gulf of Suez, mostly around <a href="http://touregypt.net/ainsukhnatop.htm">Ain Sukhna</a>, which is currently dominated by domestic tourists, but a growing number of foreign tourists, the main beach region around <a href="http://touregypt.net/hurghada/">Hurghada</a>, and the southern region which also caters to foreign tourists, but where the resorts are largely dominated by scuba diving enthusiasts.  </td> </tr> </tbody> </table></center> Travel http://www.zorpia.cn/tamerhany/journal/1877956 Thu, 05 Feb 2009 04:41 EDT